16 So I say, live by the Spirit, and you will not gratify the desires of the sinful nature. 17 For the sinful nature desires what is contrary to the Spirit, and the Spirit what is contrary to the sinful nature. They are in conflict with each other, so that you do not do what you want. 18 But if you are led by the Spirit, you are not under law.
19 The acts of the sinful nature are obvious: sexual immorality, impurity and debauchery; 20 idolatry and witchcraft; hatred, discord, jealousy, fits of rage, selfish ambition, dissensions, factions 21 and envy; drunkenness, orgies, and the like. I warn you, as I did before, that those who live like this will not inherit the kingdom of God.
22 But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, 23 gentleness and self-control. Against such things there is no law. 24 Those who belong to Christ Jesus have crucified the sinful nature with its passions and desires. 25 Since we live by the Spirit, let us keep in step with the Spirit. 26 Let us not become conceited, provoking and envying each other.
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Galatians 5:16-26
Sermon
by J. Howard Olds
Within my earthly temple there’s a crowd,
There’s one who’s humble and one who’s proud.
There’s one that’s broken-hearted for his sins,
And one who unrepentant, sits and grins.
From much corroding care I would be free,
If I could just determine which is really me.
Life is a choice. Day by day we make decisions which shape the character of our lives. The habit of good conduct is an indispensable element in the construction of a good life. So what does it mean to be a good person? What do good people have common? How can I construct a good life? Come, let us consider these questions of character on our way to Holy Communion today.
I. CHARACTER IS A MATTER OF PERSONAL INTEGRITY.
Where I came from, my father could borrow any tool from any neighbor whether or not they were home simply because he was trustworthy. They knew he would not only take care of it, he would bring it back. He borrowed money from the local bank with only his personal signature as collateral because the bankers knew he was as honest as the day was long. Things have changed since then. We now rent our tools from Home Depot and sign hundreds of papers to establish a mortgage. There are all kinds of laws governing our transactions. Can regulations ever replace personal integrity? Are we as trustworthy as those who’ve gone before us?
A friend observing Mae West’s string of pearls exclaimed, “My goodness, where did you get those pearls?” Mae replied, with a twinkle in her eye, “Goodness had nothing to do with it.”
What’s goodness got to do with it? Who needs the truth when the truth can be broken? When it comes to character, goodness has everything to do with it. What kind of world will we have if everyone simply does what is expedient in his own sight?
Each of us has a story to write on the tablet of time. Day by day we add a chapter, a verse, a line. When the plot thickens and the struggles deepen, are you a person who walks in the light and lives by the truth and practices integrity deep in your roots?
When your children grow up to be like their heroes, would you rather they follow the example of David Robinson or Kobe Bryant? Both are great basketball players. David Robinson just spent nine million dollars to open a school for inner city kids in San Antonio, Texas, while Kobe Bryant will spend at least that much defending himself against a sexual assault case with a 19-year–old in a Colorado hotel room, with whom he has already admitted committing adultery.
Paul said life is a struggle. We are constantly dealing with take-over bids fueled by desires, addictions, anger and the forces of evil. But we are called to keep in step with the Spirit. We are called to resist temptations of immorality, impurity, and debauchery by enjoying the fruit of the Spirit which is love, joy, peace. Character is a matter of personal integrity.
II. CHARACTER IS A MATTER OF RELATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY.
Sister Mary Mercedes, a Dominican nun, back in 1910 wrote a little book entitled, The Art of Living with Yourself and Others. In it she said, “Be gentle and kind. Be simple in your tastes and sincere in your actions and let everything you do and say be governed by this timeless rule: Love your neighbor as you love yourself.” Sounds simple doesn't it? Maybe too simple for our complicated world. Maybe that’s what we need the most.
I remember sitting in this sanctuary in shock of the worst terror to hit American soil since the Civil War, praying not only for safety, mercy, and grace, but for the intervention of God into the affairs of people. I remember how vulnerable we all felt as much of our security came tumbling down with those Twin Towers. I remember praying, “Lord, help us rise from the ashes of this tragedy to build a better world. For it’s not with swords loud clashing or roll of stirring drums, but with deeds of love and mercy that the heavenly kingdom comes.” While the government has responded with big guns and big talk, people have quietly moved toward a kinder, gentler, understanding of community. Therein is our salvation.
Teens are realizing it takes more than a good education to be a good person. As one Harvard student wrote, “The very qualities that I recognize as essential to getting me here are those qualities I least like in others, and since we are all alike, at least at the level of ambitious self-achievement, we do not know how to like one another or to live with one another. This place is intensely selfish.”
A teenager coming off summer mission trips wrote: “Thanks to my experiences through the summer, I realize that all teenagers have the power to make a difference for ourselves and for our communities. If people gave us a chance to help out, I think the world would be surprised at just how committed teens can be in improving the world around us, because we are, after all, the future.”
Peter Gomes says in his book, The Good Life, “The success of every culture hinges not on the big points of morality, but on the smaller ones, like being considerate of others and pulling your own weight. These values are neither legally enforceable nor purely private, but constitute the connective tissue of people interacting in a healthy society.” That’s why we ask Christians Under Construction to find one kind, unselfish deed to do for another each day. It kind of makes you think, doesn’t it?
I spent a couple days in the hospital this week, which was certainly not on my schedule. At four o’clock in the morning they came in to get the trash cans beating them like drums. At five o’clock they came in with a big chair to weigh me. I said, “I know how much I weigh. I don’t need you to tell me at five o’clock in the morning.” I happened to get put in a room with a person who snored the loudest of any human being on earth. I found myself in the middle of that suddenly remembering, “But you made a commitment. You made a commitment that you would try to practice random acts of kindness.” Instead of being my impatient patient-self that came naturally to the surface, I found myself taking a deep breath and trying to go with the flow of the day. Maybe it is in the random acts of kindness that the world will find a better way. Character is a matter of an internal decision. It is something way down in the depths of your heart where you choose to be a certain kind of person. People of character take on relational responsibility. They seek the common good.
III. CHARACTER IS A MATTER OF SELF-CONTROL.
A family member pulled the covers over his head as the alarm sounded on Sunday morning signaling the time to get ready for church. “I’m not going to church today,” grunted the sleepy member of the family. “Oh yes you are,” replied the mother of the house. “Give me one good reason I should go to church,” said the sleepy head. “I’ll give you three,” replied the lady of the house. “One, it’s Sunday. We always go to church. Two, people will be there who are expecting you, and three, you are the pastor. You are paid to go.”
There are good reasons we do not always do what we sometimes feel like doing. It’s called self-control. Rollo May called it a matter of the will. The will is the capacity to organize one’s self so that movement in a certain direction or toward a certain goal can take place.
During the time I pastored a church in Lexington, KY, Jeb McGruder was a colleague of mine, serving First Presbyterian Church in that city. You will remember the name of Jeb McGruder from the Watergate break-ins of the 1970’s that tumbled the presidency of Richard Nixon. People often asked the one-time politician now turned pastor, “How could such a bright, young, good, well-educated American have gone so badly wrong?” Jeb would reply, “We simply lost our moral compass.”
Self-control does that for us. It keeps us morally tethered to the right when we are greatly tempted to do the wrong. People capable of great good are also capable of great harm.
Oskar Schindler was the German businessman who daily risked his life to save 1200 Polish Jews from the gas chambers. After the war, this noble heart abandoned his wife, became a womanizer and a drunkard, fell into destitution and dependence on others. He even pawned the commemorative gold ring that was fashioned for him from the false teeth of those he rescued. Oskar Schindler was not a man of self-control.
It takes people of character to build lives that really matter. Character is not a sudden blaze of glory won, it is the accumulation of days in which good deeds are done. Paul says character is a matter of putting off and putting on. In one of his famous lists, he put it like this: Put off sexual immorality, impurity, debauchery, idolatry, witchcraft, hatred, discord, jealousy, fits of rage, self-ambition, dissensions, factions and envy; drunkenness, orgies and the like. Put on the fruit of the Spirit which is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self-control. Against such things there is no law.
Do you want to build a life that really matters? What are the things you need to put off and what are the things you need to put on? After all, the materials you use, make all the difference.
ChristianGlobe Networks, Inc., Faith Breaks, by J. Howard Olds
Now Paul addresses the Galatians’ behavior directly. Christ has set them free (5:1, 13), but they are not free to indulge the “sinful nature” (or “flesh”). Rather, they have been liberated to love (5:13–14)! Why is love so important? Love fulfills the law! But if they go the way of the flesh, the…
The Baker Bible Handbook by , Baker Publishing Group, 2016
16 So I say, live by the Spirit, and you will not gratify the desires of the sinful nature. 17 For the sinful nature desires what is contrary to the Spirit, and the Spirit what is contrary to the sinful nature. They are in conflict with each other, so that you do not do what you want. 18 But if you are led by the Spirit, you are not under law.
19 The acts of the sinful nature are obvious: sexual immorality, impurity and debauchery; 20 idolatry and witchcraft; hatred, discord, jealousy, fits of rage, selfish ambition, dissensions, factions 21 and envy; drunkenness, orgies, and the like. I warn you, as I did before, that those who live like this will not inherit the kingdom of God.
22 But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, 23 gentleness and self-control. Against such things there is no law. 24 Those who belong to Christ Jesus have crucified the sinful nature with its passions and desires. 25 Since we live by the Spirit, let us keep in step with the Spirit. 26 Let us not become conceited, provoking and envying each other.
As a counterbalance to the possibility of expressing one’s “sinful nature” or “flesh” (5:13) through freedom, Paul asserts that living “by the Spirit” (5:16) will characterize true freedom. The contrast of flesh (Greek sarx) and Spirit (Greek pneuma) is found throughout the Pauline Epistles, as well as other parts of the New Testament. Rather than pointing to two different parts of the same individual, the terminology relates to an orientation that motivates the course of life a person will take. These two orientations conflict in the most basic sense (5:17; see Rom. 7:15–23). Paul seems to assert that in spite of a person’s will to do right (i.e., follow the law), the flesh orientation makes that will ineffective and dooms the person to failure (5:17). This assertion reveals the utter fruitlessness of the righteousness-through-law approach. The great emancipation for the Christ follower is to be “led by the Spirit” (5:18), a leading that takes away our subjugation to the law and to the sinful nature the law appeals to (see Rom. 6:11–14).
The next two sections (5:19–26) provide a practical contrast of attitudes and actions, which can be a personal test for the Galatians’ present orientation. By finding oneself on the list of either vices or virtues, one could also identify whether or not one was led by the Spirit. Fifteen acts of the flesh are specified (5:19–21), with the insistence that the list is not exhaustive (“and the like,” 5:21; see other lists in 1Cor. 6:9–10; Eph. 5:5; Rev. 22:15). While they may have been grouped according to various schemes, the list includes sins that many would expect (“sexual immorality, impurity and debauchery”; Gal. 5:19) and others that might be unexpected (“discord, ... fits of rage, selfish ambition”; 5:20). Some of the sins appear to relate directly to the pagan lifestyles the readers once practiced (“idolatry and witchcraft; ... orgies”; 5:20–21), while others could even be associated with the type of “biting and devouring” (5:15) that appeared to be a result of their new legalistic lifestyle (“jealousy, ... dissensions, factions”; 5:20). Paul asserts that it does not take great spiritual insight (“the acts of the flesh are obvious”; 5:19) to spot the inappropriateness of these activities and attitudes among believers. In fact, he reminds them that he spoke to them about this before (5:21) and told them that such acts revealed a person who would “not inherit the kingdom of God” (5:21).
In contrast to the multiple “acts” of the flesh, the singular “fruit” (likely denoting a harmonious unity) promotes a God-oriented expression of activities and attitudes that enhance one’s relationship to God and fellow men and women. The nine attributes found here (5:22–26) are clearly indicative of the Holy Spirit in the believer’s life, and come as a composite whole, not as individual items that some have and others do not (5:22–23; for other lists of virtues, see 2Cor. 6:6; Eph. 4:2; 5:9; Col. 3:12–15).
Three sets are discernible in the list. The first, “love, joy, peace” (5:22), reflects the resultant attitude of one who has been endowed with the Spirit of the God, who is identified as love (1John 4:8), who brings complete satisfaction (John 3:29), who is declared to bring “on earth peace” (Luke 2:14), and who is identified as the “Prince of Peace” (Isa. 9:6). The second set, “forbearance, kindness, goodness” (5:22), reflects how a Spirit-led individual will conduct interpersonal relationships. The third set, “faithfulness, gentleness and self-control” (5:22–23), seems to focus primarily on a person’s inner life when under the control of the Spirit. (For a full treatment of such terms, see Barclay, 63–127.)
Paul concludes the list in verse 23 with the pronouncement, “Against such things there is no law.” Certainly his remarks are not just indicating that the foregoing list of “fruit” is permitted under the law. Rather, his point seems to answer those who feel that the call to move beyond the law would leave the Galatians without any foundation on which to measure their actions. Paul maintains that the work of the Spirit in one’s life provides an internal motivation and proper orientation to participate in the attitudes and actions that are consistent with the character of Christ. Thus, with the freedom afforded through Christ (5:1, 13), the believer crucifies the sinful nature and becomes a new person (5:24) who by nature is the righteousness demanded by the law and granted through the Spirit (see 2Cor. 3:6).
The final exhortations of the chapter indicate that while the reality of the fruit is a gift from the Spirit, the believer’s responsibility is to actively “live by the Spirit” and “keep in step with the Spirit” (Gal. 5:25). The follower of Jesus (and Paul includes himself here) does not sit idly by with the power of the Spirit within. We are, instead, called to active participation, in accordance with the new reality of our kinship. The tension of positional and experiential reality of the new creation is evident throughout all Paul’s letters (see especially Phil. 2:12). The final statement of the chapter may introduce the next, more practical section of exhortations. In any case, Paul’s focus moves from theory (5:1, 13–25) to practice (5:26; 6:1–10). Possibly the particular statement of verse 26 is put in close proximity to the encouragement to live by the Spirit since some of the Galatians might begin to develop a new set of hierarchical stages related to their manifestation of fruit. This Paul will not allow.
The Baker Illustrated Bible Commentary by Gary M. Burge, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
5:16 Paul directs his readers to live by the Spirit. The Greek word translated “live” (peripateite) is literally “walk.” Paul uses this word elsewhere when speaking of living the new life in Christ (Rom. 6:4), a life that is conducted by means of the Spirit (Rom. 8:4). The word suggests continuance, progress, and daily attention. Paul commands his readers to avoid gratifying the desires of the sinful nature by means not of law observance but of living by the Spirit.
The Greek for “sinful nature” is literally “flesh” (sarx). As Paul invests this term with all that is against the Spirit, the translation “sinful nature” largely hits the mark. The word “desires” is singular in the Greek, expressing the sense that existence in the flesh is an existence characterized by desire. Philosophical and religious thinkers in the ancient world understood that desire was intrinsic to human nature and that it was a trap from which it was necessary to be freed. Desire means one makes one’s happiness or peace hostage to achieving or receiving what one desires, whether it be money, position, or another person. Epictetus said: “For freedom is not acquired by satisfying yourself with what you desire, but by destroying your desire” (Arrian’s Discourses 4.1.175 [Oldfather, LCL]). Xenophon has Socrates say:
Some are ruled by gluttony, some by fornication, some by drunkenness, and some by foolish and expensive ambitions which rule cruelly over any men they get into their power, as long as they see that they are in their prime and able to work; so cruelly indeed, that they force them to bring whatever they have earned by working and to spend it on their desires. But when they perceive that they are unable to work because of age, they abandon them to a wreched old age and they try to use others as their slaves.” (Economics 1.23; trans. Pomeroy, p. 111)
The Jewish thinker Philo advocated circumcision for “the excision of pleasure and all passions” (On the Migration of Abraham 92 [Colson and Whitaker, LCL]). A Christian thinker subsequent to Paul expresses a similar understanding of the goal of the Christian life: “One must live without city or home; one must have nothing of one’s own—no friends, no possessions, no livelihood, no business, no company; one must renounce human learning and prepare the heart to receive the impressions of divine instructions” (Basil, Letter 2; quoted from Wiles and Santer, Documents in Early Christian Thought, p. 212).
In distinction from Greco-Roman philosophical and Jewish approaches to the problem of desire, Paul understands that freedom from enslavement to desire comes through living by the Spirit. Life “in Christ” involves the will of the believer: a conscious and continual turning away from that which is opposed to the Spirit. Even after faith in Christ believers must combat the desire to be self-serving, to live for their own comfort rather than to open themselves to the expansive love required of and available to those in Christ.
5:17 Paul portrays the human dilemma as one in which even the best of intentions are thwarted by the limitations of human nature. Paul’s description of the problem is that people do not do what they want. Unlike philosophical and religious systems that advocate a rule of life that might gradually free people from enslavement to desire, Paul advocates human will (v. 16) in cooperation with the transforming work of the Spirit.
Paul’s advice is an acknowledgment that there are daily struggles for those “in Christ”; that ethical dilemmas and failures remain part of believers’ lives. Paul does not promise immediate transformation or sanctification, but he does offer hope that while the sinful nature desires what is contrary to the Spirit, so the Spirit what is contrary to the sinful nature.
5:18 Earlier in the letter Paul affirmed the Galatians’ experience of the Spirit (3:2–5), which, along with his connecting of the promise to Abraham with the promise of the Spirit (3:14), suggests that the Galatians’ self-understanding was as those who were led by the Spirit. The sentence structure in verse 18 also suggests that the Galatians regarded themselves as those who knew the Spirit. The consequence of this fact is that they are then not under law. The subtext is Paul’s assertion that they do not need to accept the rival evangelists’ offer of law in order to live well. The plain sense is that there are two contrasting and mutually exclusive ways of approaching the ethical choices in life: through the guidance of the Spirit or through the guidance of the law.
5:19 So as to concretize the contrast between the flesh (sinful nature) and the Spirit, Paul says that the flesh results in certain acts. The phrase “acts of sinful nature” has a counterpart in 5:22—“fruit of the Spirit.” Vice and virtue lists such as the one Paul provides in 5:19–26 were a common feature of philosophical and religious writings in ancient times, and Paul has chosen to list obvious actions that indicate what he calls a sinful nature—actions that result in damage to self and to relationships. As Sanders notes, “proper behaviour is self-evident” (Paul and Palestinian Judaism, p. 513). Several of the actions Paul lists are ones that Jews typically characterized as Gentile vices (see these listed in 1 Pet. 4:3). Perhaps in response to the “agitators’” presentation of the need for law so as to avoid such Gentile vices, Paul declares that the remedy is life in the Spirit.
The first three actions concern sexuality. Sexual immorality refers to illicit sexual relations. This was an issue in Paul’s churches, for on several occasions he warns against this (1 Thess. 4:3; 1 Cor. 6:18). Impurity appears also to refer to sexual immorality, perhaps in reference to violence in connection with sexual activity. Paul connects it with “sexual immorality” and “debauchery” in 2 Corinthians 12:21. Debauchery means “wantonness” or “licentiousness.” In this context it suggests sexual licentiousness or abandon.
5:20 Although Paul wants to separate his converts from law keeping, he maintains the characteristic Jewish antipathy toward idolatry (cf. 1 Cor. 10:14). Paul knows there to be one God (Gal. 3:20) who cannot be worshiped in idols. Witchcraft has the sense of “magic” and the use of drugs for magical purposes, which might be called black magic. This practice was regarded as offensive and dangerous by Jews (see Isa. 47:9; also Exod. 7:11, 22) and others in the Greco-Roman world. Plato writes about the dangers of “sorcery and magic” and prescribes punishments for wizards who injure others by means of sorcery (Laws 11.933). Plato warns also against “that class of monstrous natures who … in contempt of mankind conjure the souls of the living and say that they can conjure the dead and promise to charm the Gods with sacrifices and prayer” (Laws 909b; trans. Jowett). Under the Roman emperors sorcery became a punishable offense. Hatred indicates “hostile feelings and actions” (so BAGD, p. 331). The vices listed in the rest of the verse identify manifestations of hatred. Discord has also the meaning of strife or contention; jealousy or envy (cf. Rom. 13:13) suggests, as Burton puts so well, “the eager desire for possession created by the spectacle of another’s possession” (Galatians, p. 307); the word for fits of rage connotes intense anger. Selfish ambition is a difficult word to translate but bears the sense of self-seeking, strife, and contentiousness. Dissensions refer to divisiveness in a group (cf. Rom. 16:17); and factions (cf. 1 Cor. 11:19) to groups who hold to their opinions aggressively and divisively.
5:21 The list continues by identifying envy, which is similar to “jealousy” and carries the sense of malice. Drunkenness can also be read as “drinking bouts” (cf. Rom. 13:13). In connection with orgies the word suggests the drunken abandon that was a feature of ancient life at certain festivals.
Paul ends with a warning, as I did before. His current warning is consonant with what he said previously and would undercut any criticism from the rival evangelists that Paul’s law-free gospel was a license for vice or that he had not adequately taught his converts about ethical behavior. Paul states emphatically his conviction that those who live like this will not inherit the kingdom of God. Paul’s choice of the word “inherit” resonates with the theme of inheritance, the understanding of which has been a battleground between himself and his opponents. Until this point Paul has stressed that his converts can be assured of inheriting the promise to Abraham by virtue of being in Christ. Now he reshapes the theme somewhat. Inheritance can be lost through acting in accordance with the flesh (the “sinful nature”), which is another way of saying that it is necessary to remain “in Christ” to share in the inheritance. The flesh is that which is opposed to the Spirit (5:17), and the Spirit is the promise to Abraham realized among Gentile believers in Christ (3:14). To live in accordance with the “sinful nature” is to exclude oneself from the inheritance.
5:22 Paul now turns to the fruit of the Spirit. The designation of the manifestations of the Spirit as “fruit” speaks volumes about Paul’s understanding of the ways of life he has been contrasting throughout the letter. Life lived in the flesh (“sinful nature”) is a life of work (“acts”), a life that strives and strains for the protection of self and often consequently for the domination of others. Life in the Spirit, on the other hand, blossoms, and the word “fruit” gives the sense that the characteristics Paul lists in verses 22 and 23 are the result of a healthy rooted state such as comes from living in Christ. Note that “fruit” is in the singular, and so the following qualities are various aspects of the generative power of the Spirit. Most of these aspects of the fruit of the Spirit are characteristics Paul elsewhere attributes to God. For Paul the fruit of the Spirit generates godly characteristics in the believer.
The first characteristic is love, which Paul has identified with Christ (2:20) and with the life of those in Christ (5:6, 14). The next is joy, which is not the same as happiness. Joy is not a state in which most of the circ*mstances of one’s life are satisfactory, but rather is life rooted in the Spirit (Rom. 14:17) and in God (Rom. 15:13). Peace, like joy, stems not from the external circ*mstances of one’s life but from the God of peace (Rom. 15:33; 16:20; Phil. 4:9). Patience has the sense of forbearance and is a characteristic of God (Rom. 2:4; 9:22) in which believers share (cf. 2 Cor. 6:6). Kindness is another feature of God’s character (Rom. 2:4; 11:22) that should characterize the people of God (2 Cor. 6:6). Goodness has the sense of “generosity” or “uprightness.” Paul uses it as a high compliment (Rom. 15:14) and recognizes that only through God’s power can believers exhibit such a virtue (2 Thess. 1:11). Faithfulness is another feature of God’s character (1 Cor. 1:9; 10:13; 2 Cor. 1:18; 1 Thess. 5:24; 2 Thess. 3:3). It is also one of the chief characteristics of Christ (2:16; 3:22).
5:23 Gentleness has the meaning of “humility,” “courtesy,” or “considerateness.” It is the most appropriate and constructive attitude to have in relating to others (cf. Gal. 6:1). Paul speaks of Christ as having this quality (2 Cor. 10:1). Self-control—the mastery of one’s own desires, or, as Plato puts it “a man being his own master” (Republic 430e; trans. Jowett; cf. Republic 390b)—was a major ethical goal in the philosophies of the ancient Mediterranean world. Xenophon defends Socrates as a man of self-control in word and deed and extols self-control as “the foundation of all virtue” (Memorabilia 1.5.4 [Marchant, LCL]). Paul also recognizes it as a worthy goal (cf. 1 Cor. 7:9; 9:25).
The fruit of the Spirit cannot be produced or prohibited by law. Life in Christ will result in character that fulfills the law apart from the law (cf. 5:14).
5:24–26 This is so because those who belong to Christ Jesus have crucified the sinful nature with its passions and desires. Such belonging is the means by which believers can live righteously. Earlier Paul said that he understood himself to “have been crucified with Christ” so that it was no longer he who lived but Christ who lived in him (2:19–20). This sharing in Christ’s death results in justification (2:21). Justification results in a new status in God’s sight and a new way of behaving. Through belonging to Christ (cf. 3:29) believers participate in the death of Christ and so, as Paul puts it in Romans, “we know that our old self was crucified with him so that the body of sin might be rendered powerless, that we might no longer be slaves to sin” (Rom. 6:6).
Paul now ties together what he has been saying: since we live by the Spirit, let us keep in step with the Spirit. Paul has directed believers to “live by the Spirit” (cf. 5:16) and claimed that they are “led by the Spirit” (5:18). Now he shifts the emphasis by stating that the basis of their life is that they are those who “live by the Spirit.” On this basis he calls them to be guided by the Spirit. By means of the Spirit the Galatian believers are to enact the life they already have in the Spirit. The NEB translates it this way: “If the Spirit is the source of our life, let the Spirit also direct our course.”
Finally, Paul warns his readers not to become conceited, provoking and envying each other. At first this exhortation appears to belong more properly with 5:19–21. It may be, however, that Paul emphasizes these vices after his exhortation to keep in step with the Spirit because they are the most detrimental to a Spirit-led life. Conceit can be detrimental to participation in the Spirit (cf. Paul’s warning against conceit, Phil. 2:3). Provocation is contrary to an essential feature of life in the Spirit—unity (cf. 1 Cor. 12:4–13). Envy can also be the basis of disruptive, aggressive, and destructive behavior. These three traits may be particular problems for people who are contending for recognition of their spiritual gifts and for the upper hand in spirituality (cf. 1 Cor. 12–14). Paul includes himself in his exhortation to keep in step with the Spirit and in the following exhortation (v. 26).
Additional Notes
5:18 Paul used the phrase “under law” previously as a way to describe life without Christ (3:23; 4:5). Elsewhere he equates being led by the Spirit with being children of God (Rom. 8:14).
5:19 The Greek word translated “acts” is lit. “works” (erga), a word that Paul used in the phrase “works of law” (2:16) and contrasted to the Spirit (3:2) and faith (3:5). The word has a negative connotation for him. This is the only occurrence of the phrase “works of flesh” (acts of the sinful nature) in Paul’s writings. We should not be too quick to understand it as equivalent to “works of law,” particularly since the works listed are largely prohibited by the law. Paul’s later understanding that the law provided an opportunity for sin (Rom. 7:7–25) is not in view here.
5:21 The word live is a rendering of a Greek present participle (prassontes) that means “those who are given to practice.” The warning is directed at those who consciously and repeatedly indulge in these vices.
Unlike the gospel writers, Paul does not often use the phrase the kingdom of God. On occasion he uses it in ethical contexts (1 Cor. 6:9–10; Rom. 14:17) but also in other settings (1 Cor. 4:20; 15:24, 50; 1 Thess. 2:12). This is the only use of the phrase in Galatians. Perhaps Paul is reminding his readers of his original preaching or responding to the “confusers” by using a term they had introduced into the Galatian churches.
5:23 The statement against such things there is no law has a parallel in Aristotle. In Politics he writes of those who are exceptionally virtuous that “against such people there is no law” (3.13.2 [1284a]; my translation). Longenecker suggests that this sentiment may have had a proverbial status in the ancient world to express “actions that surpass all legal prescriptions and are therefore beyond any legal accounting” (Galatians, p. 264).
5:24 Dying to passions was a goal of the ancient philosophies. We find it also in writings of Philo. For instance, Philo commends “the light of Isaac—the generic form of happiness, of the joy and gladness which belongs to those who have ceased from the manner of women [Gen. 18:11] and died to the passions” (On the Cherubim 8 [Colson and Whitaker, LCL]). See also Philo, On Husbandry 17. Plato writes:
This then is why a man should be of good cheer about his soul, who in his life has rejected the pleasures and ornaments of the body, thinking they are alien to him and more likely to do him harm than good, and … after adorning his soul with no alien ornaments, but with its own proper adornment of self-restraint and justice and courage and freedom and truth, awaits his departure to the other world, ready to go when fate calls him. (Phaedo 114–115a [Fowler, LCL])
The goal Paul presents is not peculiar to him, although the means—dying with Christ—is uniquely Christian.
5:25 Unlike the word translated “live” in v. 16 (lit. “walk”), the Greek word zōmen translated live in this verse lit. is “live.” The nuance is somewhat different in each case: in v. 16 the word gives the sense of continual active participation in the Spirit; in v. 25 it indicates the basis of one’s life.
The phrase keep in step with the Spirit contains the verbal form of the word “elements” (stoichōmen) encountered in 4:3 and 4:9. In its verbal form it has the sense of walking in a straight line and so of conducting oneself appropriately. The same verb occurs in Gal. 6:16, being translated as “follow.” Here it means walking, by means of the Spirit, in the path set by the Spirit.
Understanding the Bible Commentary Series by L. Ann Jervis, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Direct Matches
One of the sins forbidden in the Ten Commandments (Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18). Narrowly interpreted, the prohibition forbids extramarital relations with a married woman (Lev. 20:10), but it is applied more broadly in Lev. 20 and Deut. 22 24 to cover a variety of sexual offenses.
The words “wrath” and “anger” are used in Bible translations for a variety of Hebrew and Greek words that refer to the disposition of someone (including God) toward persons (including oneself [Gen. 45:5]) or situations considered to be seriously displeasing. There may be degrees of anger (Zech. 1:15), and it may be accompanied by other sentiments such as distress (Gen. 45:5), hatred (Job 16:9), jealousy (Rom. 10:19), grief (Mark 3:5), and vengeance (Mic. 5:15).
Anger may be a proper response to sin or a sin-distorted world, as seen in, for example, Moses’ reaction to the golden calf (Exod. 32:19). Paul envisages an anger that does not necessarily involve sin (Eph. 4:26). Jesus is said to display anger at the willful stubbornness of his contemporaries (Mark 3:5), and his response to the mourning for Lazarus (John 11:33) might be rendered as “outrage,” an anger directed not so much at the mourners as at the ugliness of death, the consequence of sin, and with thoughts, perhaps, of his own impending death necessitated by this fallen world.
On the other hand, a display of anger may be the result of distorted perceptions or values (Gen. 4:56). A tendency to anger in oneself needs to be kept in check (James 1:19) and in others needs to be handled prudently (Prov. 15:1). Unchecked, anger may lead to violence and murder (Gen. 49:6). In several NT lists anger is associated with such other sinful behavior as quarreling, jealousy, selfishness, slander, malice, gossip, conceit, strife, idolatry, sorcery, and bitterness (2Cor. 12:20; Gal. 5:20; Eph. 4:31; Col. 3:8).
In Ps. 76:10 NLT (cf. ESV, NASB, NRSV) God is said to cause human anger to bring him praise (but see NIV, NET, where it is God’s wrath against human beings that brings him praise). Perhaps an instance of this is seen in Rom. 13:4–5, where the wrath of the civil authority serves to maintain justice under God.
The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesus followers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christ embodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in human history.
Birth and childhood. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem during the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesus was probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’s death (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of a virginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18; Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governor Quirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place in Bethlehem (2:15). Both the census and the governorship at the time of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars. Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to either confirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must be determined on the basis of one’s view regarding the general reliability of the Gospel tradition.
On the eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keeping with the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus” (Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home of his parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel of Luke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth in strength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke also contains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Baptism, temptation, and start of ministry. After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke 3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring to him as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instant ministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into the wilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that the temptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Luke identify three specific temptations by the devil, though their order for the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesus was tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine intervention after jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’s kingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation, quoting Scripture in response.
Matthew and Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum in Galilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13; Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirty years of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity or perhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of the Levites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning of Jesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples and the sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Galilean ministry. The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and around Galilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that the kingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment of prophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ first teaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30); the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for his calling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection and suffering.
All the Gospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in his Galilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke 5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioning of the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers is recorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministry is the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke 6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, in particular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synoptics focus on healings and exorcisms.
During Jesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with his identity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority (Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family (3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner of Beelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesus told parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growing kingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humble beginnings (4:1–32).
The Synoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful. No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority or ability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized many demons (5:1–13), raised the dead (5:35–42), fed five thousand (6:30–44), and walked on water (6:48–49).
In the later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew and traveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are not written with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns to Galilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fear resolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee, where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ disciples with lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed the Pharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents (7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demanding a sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, who confessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus did provide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesus withdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician woman requested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sent only to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans had long resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality that allotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere “crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Even the dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,” Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-mute man in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’s confession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’ travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The city was the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judean ministry. Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry as he resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually led to his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem into three phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27). The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of the journey. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, and the demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem (Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45; Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journey toward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvation and judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase of the journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are the main themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Social conflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposte interactions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel (Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomic feathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who had little value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16; Luke 18:15–17).
Passion week, death, and resurrection. Each of the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with the crowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark 11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Luke describes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during which Jesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
In Jerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17). Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because the whole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “began looking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segment of Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’ authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions (12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation (12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s own destruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, Judas Iscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’ arrest (14:10–11).
At the Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a new covenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29; Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned the disciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark 14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and later he prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agony and submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42; Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial, crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15; Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18). Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission by making disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8) and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return (Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.
Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.
In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:2829).
In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).
Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (2:8).
In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the Letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).
In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the Letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).
Literally, fruit is the seed-bearing part of a plant. It constitutes an important part of the diet in the ancient Near East. Common fruits are olives, grapes, and figs, though many other varieties of fruit are also available, including apples, apricots, peaches, pomegranates, dates, and melons. Fruit trees play a prominent role as a food source in God’s creation and preparation of the garden of Eden (Gen. 13). The law prohibits the Israelites from cutting down their enemy’s fruit trees (Deut. 20:19). The abundance of fruit trees characterizes the land that God has prepared for Israel (Deut. 8:8; Neh. 9:25) as well as the final restoration (Ezek. 47:12; Joel 2:22; Rev. 22:2).
One aspect of fruit is that it grows from a plant. This use of the term is often extended to represent what emerges from something else. Thus, fruit may represent offspring, whether human or animal (Deut. 7:13; 28:4), one’s actions (Matt. 7:16–20), the result of one’s actions or choices (Prov. 1:31; 10:16; Jer. 17:10), or words coming from one’s mouth (Prov. 12:14; Heb. 13:15). In the NT especially, producing much fruit symbolizes performing deeds that are pleasing to God (Matt. 3:8; 13:23; Mark 4:20; John 15:16; Rom. 7:4; Col. 1:10). Those who live by the Spirit produce the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23). The apostle Paul speaks of the first converts in a particular region as being firstfruits, probably referring to their conversion as the result of the gospel being preached in the area (Rom. 16:5; 2Thess. 2:13).
The tangible presence of God, experienced as overwhelming power and splendor. The main Hebrew word referring to glory, kabod, has the root meaning “heavy” (1Sam. 4:18), which in other contexts can mean “intense” (Exod. 9:3; NIV: “terrible”), “wealthy” (i.e., “heavy in possessions” [Gen. 13:2]), and “high reputation” (Gen. 34:19; NIV: “most honored”). When used of God, it refers to his person and his works. God reveals his glory to Israel and to Egypt at the crossing of the sea (Exod. 14:4, 1719). He carefully reveals his glory to Moses after Israel’s sin with the golden calf in order to assure him that he will not abandon them (33:12–23).
In the NT the glory of God is made real in the person of Jesus Christ (John 1:14; Heb. 1:3). He is, after all, the very presence of God. When he returns on the clouds, he will fully reveal God’s glory (Matt. 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 21:27).
An image or likeness of a deity, whether carved from wood, molded from metal, or even formed in one’s mind.
In contrast to other ancient religions, the Bible rejects worship of all images as incompatible with worship of God. This includes images of Yahweh, since he is transcendent and cannot be represented by anything in creation. As Moses reminded Israel, they saw no form at Sinai but only heard God’s voice (Deut. 4:12). No form can adequately represent Yahweh, as he is incomparable. The Bible similarly forbids worshiping images of other deities because it elevates them to the status reserved for God alone. Thus, the second commandment prohibits making and worshiping idols in the image of anything found in heaven, on earth, or in the water (Exod. 20:45).
By NT times, idol worship was no longer a problem for Jews, but it remained an important issue for the growing church because many believers came from idolatrous backgrounds. Thus, the apostles included idolatry in lists of sins to be judged, warned their readers to flee from it, and addressed eating food sacrificed to idols. Indicating that idolatry went beyond worship of images, they linked it with the love of money (Matt. 6:24) and greed (Col. 3:5). The NT authors believed that their readers could turn from idols to worship the true and living God, praised them for doing so, and looked to the time when all idol worship would cease.
A holy God wants a holy people. He had described the nation of Israel as holy (cf. Exod. 19:56) but also wanted them to live holy lives and grow increasingly holy. Holiness came, in part, by keeping the law; an important part of the law was the concept of cleanness.
Cleanness does not refer to good hygiene, nor is it synonymous with morality, since a person could be unclean and still righteous. Cleanness allowed the OT believer to live a holy life and enabled that person to be made increasingly holy by “Yahweh, your sanctifier” (NIV: “the Lord, who makes you holy,” Lev. 20:8; cf. 21:8, 15, 23; 22:9, 16, 32; 31:13). Impurity traveled along four channels: sexuality (various discharges; e.g., nocturnal emission, menstruation, childbirth), diet (e.g., eating certain types of animals), disease (e.g., skin diseases, mildew), and death (i.e., contact with animal or human corpses). Impurities occurring naturally and unavoidably in the course of life (e.g., menstruation) were tolerated, representing no danger to the person or community as long as they were promptly addressed. Other impurities had to be avoided at all costs or else grave consequences would result to the person and community.
One prohibited impurity arose from eating food declared off-limits by God. All meat had to be thoroughly bled before being eaten (Gen. 9:3–4; Lev. 17:10–14; Deut. 12:16, 23). Edible land animals must both have a completely divided hoof and chew the cud (Lev. 11:3; Deut. 14:6), while water creatures had to have both fins and scales (Lev. 11:9; Deut. 14:9). Most birds were acceptable for food (exceptions are given in Lev. 11:13–19; Deut. 14:11–18), as were most insects (Lev. 11:20–23; Deut. 14:19–20) and some crawling animals (Lev. 11:29–31, 41–42).
Why did God declare certain things clean and others unclean? Some suggest that the distinction is arbitrary; the rules are given as a test of obedience. Others argue that the original audience knew of reasons now lost to us. Still others believe that God was protecting his people from disease. It is true that certain kinds of meat improperly prepared can transmit disease, but not all laws can be explained this way. Some believe that God identified things as clean because they represented a state of normalcy (e.g., fish normally propel themselves with fins, so those lacking fins are abnormal and thus unclean). A related view considers things as clean or unclean based on what they symbolized. So, for example, God identified objects as unclean if they were associated with death (e.g., vultures, corpses) because he is for life. Here again, it is difficult to explain all the laws by appeal to normalcy or symbolism.
Ceremonial cleansing is not just a topic in the OT; it appears in the opening chapters of the Gospels. Mary underwent the required purification rituals after Jesus’ birth (Luke 2:22–24), and Jesus “cleansed” people from leprosy, instructing them to carry out the Mosaic purification rituals (Matt. 8:2–4; Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–14; 17:11–19; cf. Matt. 10:8; 11:5; Luke 4:27; 7:22).
In one of his confrontations with the Pharisees, Jesus signaled a departure from how these laws had been practiced. He announced, “Nothing outside a person can defile them by going into them. Rather, it is what comes out of a person that defiles them” (Mark 7:15), to which Mark adds an explanation: “In saying this, Jesus declared all foods ‘clean’” (7:19). Peter’s rooftop vision in Acts 10 reflects this same perspective, as do the church’s decision regarding Gentile conversion (Acts 15) and Paul’s comments to the church at Rome (Rom. 14:14, 20–21).
A kingdom signifies the reality and extent of a king’s dominion or rule (Gen. 10:10; 20:9; Num. 32:33; 2Kings 20:13; Esther 1:22). Some kingdoms were relatively small; others were concerted attempts to gain the whole world.
A kingdom presupposes monarchy, rule by an individual, human authority. Although kings only have as much authority as their armies and the general populace allow, they nevertheless exercise an almost absolute power, which invites either profound humility or hubris. Royal arrogance, unfortunately, is the primary motif characterizing kings in the Bible (e.g., Dan.3).
God originally intended Israel to be governed as a theocracy, ruled by the one, true, living God (but see Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:1420). Israel was to be a “kingdom of priests” (Exod. 19:6), but the people demanded a king (1Sam. 8:1–22). However, even when God granted their request, God remained King over the king and even retained ownership of the land (Lev. 25:23, 42, 55). The Israelite king was nothing more than God’s viceroy, with delegated authority. With few exceptions, most of the kings of Israel and Judah were corrupted by authority and wealth and forgot God (1Sam. 13:13–14; 15:28; Matt. 14:6–11). But God made a covenant with David, so that one of his descendants would become a coregent in a restored theocracy, the kingdom of God (2Sam. 7:1–29; Pss. 89:3; 132:11). In contrast to David’s more immediate descendants, this coming king would return to Jerusalem humble and mounted on a donkey (Zech. 9:9; cf. Isa. 62:11). The Gospels present Jesus Christ as this king (Matt. 21:1–9 pars.). Those who are likewise humble will inherit the land with him (Matt. 5:5).
The kingdom of God is a major theme in the Bible. While the theme is most fully developed in the NT, its origin is the OT, where the emphasis falls on God’s kingship. God is king of Israel (Exod. 15:18; Num. 23:21; Deut. 33:5; Isa. 43:15) and of all the earth (2Kings 19:15; Pss. 29:10; 99:14; Isa. 6:5; Jer. 46:18). Juxtaposed to the concept of God’s present reign as king are references to a day when God will become king over his people (Isa. 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Zeph. 3:15; Zech. 14:9). This emphasis on God’s kingship continues throughout Judaism and takes on special significance in Jewish apocalypticism and its anticipation of the kingdom of God in the age to come, which abandoned any hope for present history. Only at the end of the age will the kingdom of God come. This idea of God’s kingdom is further developed throughout the NT.
In general, Torah (Law) may be subdivided into three categories: judicial, ceremonial, and moral, though each of these may influence or overlap with the others. The OT associates the “giving of the Torah” with Moses’ first divine encounter at Mount Sinai (Exod. 1923) following the Israelites’ deliverance from the land of Egypt, though some body of customary legislation existed before this time (Exod. 18). These instructions find expansion and elucidation in other pentateuchal texts, such as Leviticus and Deut. 12–24, indicating that God’s teachings were intended as the code of conduct and worship for Israel not only during its wilderness wanderings but also when it settled in the land of Canaan following the conquest.
More specifically, the word “law” often denotes the Ten Commandments (or “the Decalogue,” lit., the “ten words”) (Exod. 34:28; Deut. 4:13; 10:4) that were delivered to Moses (Exod. 20:1–17; Deut. 5:6–21). These commandments reflect a summary statement of the covenant and may be divided into two parts, consistent with the two tablets of stone on which they were first recorded: the first four address the individual’s relationship to God, and the last six focus on instructions concerning human relationships. Despite the apparent simplistic expression of the Decalogue, the complexity of these guidelines extends beyond individual acts and attitudes, encompassing any and all incentives, enticements, and pressures leading up to a thing forbidden. Not only should the individual refrain from doing the prohibited thing, but also he or she is obligated to practice its opposite good in order to be in compliance.
In the world of the Bible, a person was viewed as a unity of being with the pervading breath and thus imprint of the loving and holy God. The divine-human relationship consequently is portrayed in the Bible as predominantly spiritual in nature. God is spirit, and humankind may communicate with him in the spiritual realm. The ancients believed in an invisible world of spirits that held most, if not all, reasons for natural events and human actions in the visible world.
The OT writers used the common Hebrew word ruakh (“wind” or “breath”) to describe force and even life from the God of the universe. In its most revealing first instance, God’s ruakh hovered above the waters of the uncreated world (Gen. 1:2). In the next chapter of Genesis a companion word, neshamah (“breath”), is used as God breathed into Adam’s nostrils “the breath of life” (2:7). God thus breathed his own image into the first human being. Humankind’s moral obligations in the remainder of the Bible rest on this breathing act of God.
The OT authors often employ ruakh simply to denote air in motion or breath from a person’s mouth. However, special instances of the use of ruakh include references to the very life of a person (Gen. 7:22; Ps. 104:29), an attitude or emotion (Gen. 41:8; Num. 14:24; Ps. 77:3), the negative traits of pride or temper (Ps. 76:12), a generally good disposition (Prov. 11:13; 18:14), the seat of conversion (Ezek. 18:31; 36:26), and determination given by God (2Chron. 36:22; Hag. 1:14).
The NT authors used the Greek term pneuma to convey the concept of spirit. In the world of the NT, the human spirit was understood as the divine part of human reality as distinct from the material realm. The spirit appears conscious and capable of rejoicing (Luke 1:47). Jesus was described by Luke as growing and becoming “strong in spirit” (1:80). In “spirit” Jesus “knew” what certain teachers of the law were thinking in their hearts (Mark 2:8). Likewise, Jesus “was deeply moved in spirit and troubled” at the sickness of a loved one (John 11:33). At the end of his life, Jesus gave up his spirit (John 19:30).
According to Jesus, the spirit is the place of God’s new covenant work of conversion and worship (John 3:5; 4:24). He declared the human spirit’s dependence on God and ascribed great virtue to those people who were “poor in spirit” (Matt. 5:3).
Human beings who were possessed by an evil spirit were devalued in Mediterranean society. In various places in the Synoptic Gospels and the book of Acts, either Jesus or the disciples were involved in exorcisms of such spirits (Matt. 8:2833; Mark 1:21–28; 7:24–30; 9:14–29; 5:1–20; 9:17–29; Luke 8:26–33; 9:37–42; Acts 5:16).
The apostle Paul pointed to the spirit as the seat of conversion (Rom. 7:6; 1Cor. 5:5). He described believers as facing a struggle between flesh and spirit in regard to living a sanctified life (Rom. 8:2–17; Gal. 5:16–17). A contradiction seems apparent in Pauline thinking as he appears to embrace Greek dualistic understanding of body (flesh) and spirit while likewise commanding that “spirit, soul and body be kept blameless” (1Thess. 5:23). However, the Christian struggle between flesh and Spirit (the Holy Spirit) centers around the believer’s body being dead because of sin but the spirit being alive because of the crucified and resurrected Christ (Rom. 8:10). Believers therefore are encouraged to lead a holistic life, lived in the Spirit.
The Bible has much to say about works, and an understanding of the topic is important because works play a role in most religions. In the most generic sense, “works” refers to the products or activities of human moral agents in the context of religious discussion. God’s works are frequently mentioned in Scripture, and they are always good. His works include creation (Gen. 2:23; Isa. 40:28; 42:5), sustenance of the earth (Ps. 104; Heb. 1:3), and redemption (Exod. 6:6; Ps. 111:9; Rom. 8:23). Human works, therefore, should be in alignment with God’s works, though obviously of a different sort. Works in the Bible usually reflect a moral polarity: good or evil, righteous or unrighteous, just or unjust. The context of the passage often determines the moral character of the works (e.g., Isa. 3:10–11; 2Cor. 11:15).
Important questions follow from the existence of works and their moral quality. Do good works merit God’s favor or please him? Can good works save at the time of God’s judgment? When people asked Jesus, “What must we do to do the works God requires?” he answered, “The work of God is this: to believe in the one he has sent” (John 6:28–29). Without faith it is impossible to please God (Heb. 11:6). The people from the OT commended in Heb. 11 did their works in the precondition of faith. Explicitly in the NT and often implicitly in the OT, faith is the condition for truly good works. God elects out of his mercy, not out of human works (Rom. 9:12, 16; Titus 3:5; cf. Rom. 11:2). Works not done in faith, even if considered “good” by human standards, are not commendable to God, since all humankind is under sin (Rom. 3:9) and no person is righteous or does good (Rom. 3:10–18; cf. Isa. 64:6). Works cannot save; salvation is a gift to be received by faith (Eph. 2:8–9; 2Tim. 1:9; cf. Rom. 4:2–6). Even works of the Mosaic law are not salvific (Rom. 3:20, 27–28; Gal. 2:16; 3:2; 5:4). Good works follow from faith (2Cor. 9:8; Eph. 2:10; 1Thess. 1:3; James 2:18, 22; cf. Acts 26:20). The works of those who have faith will be judged, but this judgment appears to be related to rewards, not salvation (Matt. 16:27; Rom. 2:6; 2Cor. 5:10; cf. Rom. 14:10; 1Cor. 3:13–15).
Direct Matches
One of the sins forbidden in the Ten Commandments (Exod.20:14; Deut. 5:18). Narrowly interpreted, the prohibition forbidsextramarital relations with a married woman (Lev. 20:10), but it isapplied more broadly in Lev. 20 and Deut. 22–24 to cover avariety of sexual offenses.
Theprophets invoked the commandment in condemning God’s waywardpeople (Hos. 4:2; Jer. 7:9). They also used it as a metaphor forspiritual unfaithfulness to the God of the covenant (Hos. 3–4;Ezek. 16:30–34), as does Revelation for succumbing to falseteaching (Rev. 2:22).
Jesusbrought out the original force of the commandment, saying that alustful look amounted to adultery (Matt. 5:27–30). He listedthis commandment in Mark 10:19 (and pars.) when talking to the richyoung ruler. Paul and James also made clear that the prohibition wasstill in force (Rom. 2:22; 13:9; James 2:11). Jesus taught thatadultery springs from the unregenerate heart (Matt. 15:19 pars.), andfor Paul adultery was one of “the acts of the flesh”(Gal. 5:19).
TheOT penalty for adultery was stoning (Deut. 22:22–24), though itis not clear how rigorously this was enforced. Jesus forgave thewoman “caught in adultery” (John 8:3–11) and toldher not to repeat her sin. His leniency may have been motivated inpart by the hypocrisy of her accusers, who had let the guilty man gofree.
Theexception clause in Jesus’ teaching that forbids divorce andremarriage (“except for sexual immorality,” whichincludes adultery) is found in Matt. 5:32; 19:9. Matthew only spellsout what is implicit in Mark 10:11–12; Luke 16:18. Jesus statedthat if a man divorces his wife so as to marry another woman (moreattractive to him for some reason), this is nothing but legalizedadultery. The notorious example of Herod’s marriage to Herodiasmay be part of the background to this teaching (Mark 6:17).
The words “wrath” and “anger” areused in Bible translations for a variety of Hebrew and Greek wordsthat refer to the disposition of someone (including God) towardpersons (including oneself [Gen. 45:5]) or situations considered tobe seriously displeasing. There may be degrees of anger (Zech. 1:15),and it may be accompanied by other sentiments such as distress (Gen.45:5), hatred (Job 16:9), jealousy (Rom. 10:19), grief (Mark 3:5),and vengeance (Mic. 5:15).
Angermay be a proper response to sin or a sin-distorted world, as seen in,for example, Moses’ reaction to the golden calf (Exod. 32:19).Paul envisages an anger that does not necessarily involve sin (Eph.4:26). Jesus is said to display anger at the willful stubbornness ofhis contemporaries (Mark 3:5), and his response to the mourning forLazarus (John 11:33) might be rendered as “outrage,” ananger directed not so much at the mourners as at the ugliness ofdeath, the consequence of sin, and with thoughts, perhaps, of his ownimpending death necessitated by this fallen world.
Onthe other hand, a display of anger may be the result of distortedperceptions or values (Gen. 4:5–6). A tendency to anger inoneself needs to be kept in check (James 1:19) and in others needs tobe handled prudently (Prov. 15:1). Unchecked, anger may lead toviolence and murder (Gen. 49:6). In several NT lists anger isassociated with such other sinful behavior as quarreling, jealousy,selfishness, slander, malice, gossip, conceit, strife, idolatry,sorcery, and bitterness (2Cor. 12:20; Gal. 5:20; Eph. 4:31;Col. 3:8).
InPs. 76:10 NLT (cf. ESV, NASB, NRSV) God is said to cause human angerto bring him praise (but see NIV, NET, where it is God’s wrathagainst human beings that brings him praise). Perhaps an instance ofthis is seen in Rom. 13:4–5, where the wrath of the civilauthority serves to maintain justice under God.
Although the Bible does acknowledge the limited value ofalcohol or inebriation as a palliative (Prov. 31:6–7),drunkenness is generally presented as the cause of all sorts ofproblems in life: woe, sorrow, strife, bruises, red eyes, lust (Prov.23:29–35), poverty (Prov. 23:21), staggering, vomiting, loss ofdiscernment (Isa. 28:7–8), and public shame (Hab. 2:15; cf.Gen. 9:21). Drunkenness is named as a mark of the disobedient son(Deut. 21:20–21; cf. Luke 15:11–13). It is also acharacteristically negative feature in several incidents (e.g., theincest in Lot’s family [Gen. 19:33–35]; David’splan to cover up his adultery [2Sam. 11:13]; assassinations ofAmnon, Elah, Ben-Hadad and his allies [2Sam. 13:28; 1Kings16:9; 20:16]; Nabal’s feast of wine [1Sam. 25:36]),although it is mistakenly attributed to Hannah in prayer (1Sam.1:13) and the disciples on the Pentecost (Acts 2:13). Drunkenness ofcivic and religious leaders represents the religious and moralcorruption of God’s people (Isa. 5:11–12, 22–23;28:1, 3; 28:7–8; 56:11–12; Amos 2:12; 6:6). It is alsomentioned as a characteristic of the wicked servant (Matt. 24:49) anda sign of division among the believers (1Cor.11:21).
Inthe OT, therefore, abstinence from strong drink not only is regardedas a virtue of the leaders of society (Prov. 31:4–5; Eccles.10:16–17) but also is required of those who should maintainspiritual purity (priests on duty [Lev. 10:9; Ezek. 44:21]; Naziritesduring their vows [Num. 6:3–4; cf. Judg. 13:7]; cf. voluntaryabstainers [Jer. 35:6; Dan. 1:8]). In the NT sobriety is required ofall believers in Christ (Gal. 5:21; Eph. 5:18; especially living inthe last days [Luke 21:34; 1Thess. 5:7]), particularly churchleaders (1Tim. 3:2–3; Titus 1:7–8;2:2–3).
Drunkennessis also a metaphor widely employed in the Bible (e.g., storm-tossedsailors [Ps. 107:27]; Jeremiah before God [Jer. 23:9]; the spiritualadultery of the kings of the earth [Rev. 17:2]; slaughter [Deut.32:42; Jer. 46:10; Rev. 17:6]). Notably, drunkenness signifies God’sjudgment (Jer. 13:13; Ezek. 23:33), and Isaiah frequently comparesdrunkenness to the lack of discernment and wisdom among the leadersof society (Isa. 19:13–14; 24:20; 29:9–10; 63:6; also Job12:25). A wine cup also symbolizes God’s wrath (Ps. 75:8; Isa.51:17, 22; Jer. 25:15–28; 51:7; Lam. 4:21; Ezek. 23:31–34;Hab. 2:16; Matt. 20:22–23; 26:39, 42; John 18:11; Rev.14:10;16:19).
The spectrum of meaning of “faith” and “faithfulness” may be applied both to God and to human beings. Cognates of “faith” are used interpersonally in human relationships but are used in the Bible specifically to denote the interaction between God and humanity, and human response to God. A question of theological pertinence is the degree to which one must distinguish between faith as an agent of personal belief and faith as an object of personal belief as pertaining to the relationship between God and human being.
In Hebrew the words most often translated “faith” or “faithful” are ’emunah and ’emet. In Greek the word rendered most frequently “faith” or “faithful” is pistis. In terms of their semantic domains, ’emunah and ’emet connote an objective sense of reliability (of persons) and stability (of inanimate objects); pistis conveys more of a subjective sense of placing confidence in a person, trusting in a person, or believing in a person or set of propositions. This subjective sense of pistis is correlated to considering the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence as reliable—“faithful.” Pistis likewise is used to communicate the quality of this person or belief as “committed” and “trustworthy.”
As noted, to some degree the meanings of the Hebrew and Greek terms overlap. However, certain dissimilarities are apparent as well. These observations play out in OT and NT expressions of faith. Martin Buber (1878–1965), a Jewish philosopher known for his academic work in the area of “faith,” distinguished between two types of faith: OT/Judaic faith, typified as tribal, national, and communal trust and fidelity based on the covenant; and NT/Christian faith, characterized as individual persuasion or belief in something.
Old Testament
Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.
Faithfulness as an attribute of God. Yahweh is presented in the OT as faithful to his promises, as faithfulness is a part of his very being. In the Torah the Israelites are reminded, “The Lord your God is God; he is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love to a thousand generations of those who love him and keep his commandments” (Deut. 7:9). Not only is God presented as keeping his covenant, but also the prophet Hosea calls God “the faithful Holy One” (Hos. 11:12). Isaiah likewise pre-sents faithfulness as an attribute of God (Isa. 49:7). The people can rest assured, for God is unchanging and reliable.
The psalmist speaks of Yahweh as the faithful God: “You have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God” (Ps. 31:5 NRSV); “he remains faithful forever” (Ps. 146:6). The translation “faithful” is warranted in these instances in the psalms. Its connotations are “truth” and “trustworthiness.” Yahweh is ascribed divine honor by his people recognizing and acknowledging his faithfulness and trustworthiness, and by responding to it in obedience as the people of God.
The faith of Abraham. Abraham’s (Abram’s) faith is used in the Bible as an example (Rom. 4:12; Gal. 3:6–9) in the sense that Abraham trusted God’s faithfulness in a way unequaled by other characters in the OT. Abraham lived in Mesopotamia when God spoke to him in a vision and told him that his descendants would be as innumerable as the stars in the sky (Gen. 15:1–5). Abraham trusted that God would be faithful to keep his promise despite insurmountable obstacles. This trust was credited to Abraham as righteousness (15:6). God subsequently initiated a covenant with Abraham (15:7–21).
Abraham’s life was characterized by his obedience to God and by his considering God to be faithful, something well noted by the early church (Heb. 11:8–11, 17–19) and used as an example of faith in the Christian walk (12:1). The three best-known examples of Abraham’s obedience and hence trust in God’s faithfulness are found consecutively in the departure from his homeland, the birth of his son Isaac, and the offering of Isaac as a sacrifice.
When God said to Abraham, “Go from your country, your people and your father’s household to the land I will show you” (Gen. 12:1), Abraham went as commanded (12:4). He obeyed despite his cultural disposition toward staying in the area of his ancestry and kin, and he went without knowledge of an appointed destination. Elderly and childless (12:7, 11–12), Abraham considered offspring to be impossible. However, Abraham trusted that God would be able to raise offspring for him, believing that he would become a great nation (12:2). His offspring Isaac was later reminded of the obedience of Abraham (26:5). Abraham’s greatest challenge of trust in God’s faithful provision came when he was commanded to offer his son Isaac as a burnt offering (22:2). He was commended for fearing God without reservation (22:12).
When the priest and initial leader of the Maccabean revolt, Mattathias, gave his farewell speech to his sons as he faced death in 166 BC, he placed his deeds along the lines of biblical heroes of faith such as Abraham. With likely reference to Abraham offering Isaac, he said, “Was not Abraham found faithful when tested, and it was reckoned to him as righteousness?” (1Macc. 2:52 NRSV). The early church likewise used this test in Abraham’s life as an example of his faithfulness, while at the same time claiming that the source for this faithfulness was found in faith—faith in God’s faithful provision (Heb. 11:17).
Faithfulness to the covenant. Faithfulness embodies the very core of the covenant relationship. God seeks a love relationship with humanity expressed in initiating his covenant. He is described as “abounding in love and faithfulness” (Exod. 34:6). His covenant love (Heb. khesed) is closely correlated to his faithfulness: “He is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love” (Deut. 7:9). Throughout the OT, Yahweh is shown as loyal to his covenant. Yahweh’s righteousness is seen in his faithfulness in keeping the covenant even when his people were disloyal and did not acknowledge his faithfulness. He delivered his people out of Egypt because of his covenant love and righteousness, as the psalmist declared: “But from everlasting to everlasting the Lord’s love is with those who fear him, and his righteousness with their children’s children—with those who keep his covenant and remember to obey his precepts” (Ps. 103:17–18). He delivered them out of their subsequent exile, declaring them righteous because their repentant hearts trusted in his faithfulness and sought to obey his covenant. Yahweh said, “If I have not made my covenant with day and night and established the laws of heaven and earth, then I will reject the descendants of Jacob and David my servant and will not choose one of his sons to rule over the descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. For I will restore their fortunes and have compassion on them” (Jer. 33:25–26).
God’s people, however, were expected to reciprocate and trust his faithfulness (1Chron. 16:15–16). When God met with Moses on Mount Sinai, he instructed Moses to tell the Israelites to obey the commands fully and to keep the covenant. It was only then that they would be a treasured possession, a holy nation (Exod. 19:5–6). The Israelites were expected to follow in obedience and thus reciprocate God’s faithfulness. The people of Israel often failed, but David and other godly people chose to be faithful to God and walk in his truth (Ps. 119:30; Heb. 11:4–38).
Faith counted as righteousness. Whereas faith is used throughout the OT in reference to God’s faithfulness and loyalty, it is used in Hab. 2:4 as pertaining to the faith of the righteous: “But the righteous will live by his faith” (NASB). In Rom. 1:17 Paul specifies, “For in the gospel a righteousness from God is revealed, a righteousness that is by faith from first to last, just as it is written: ‘The righteous will live by faith.’ ” He notes that God’s righteousness, even as revealed within OT promises, is by faith (“faith to faith,” or “faith, through and through”). By the parameters “from faith to faith,” Paul intends to exclude works of righteousness, a theme that he carries consistently in the first four chapters of Romans. Justification, for Habakkuk’s hearers, meant faithfulness, a single-minded focus on Yahweh to meet life’s essential needs. For Paul, salvation by way of justification meant that reliance upon Christ alone was foundational. In Pauline theology, faith is a thread connecting the old covenant with the new covenant.
New Testament
Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.
In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:28–29).
In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).
Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (Eph. 2:8).
In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).
In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1Pet. 1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).
Faith is rarely addressed in the book of Revelation. Rather, faithfulness is the objective. Christ is described as the faithful and true witness (Rev. 1:5; 3:14), the perfect example for believers. One of the believers in Asia Minor, Antipas, is identified as Christ’s witness and faithful one (2:13). Those believers who, like Antipas, are faithful unto death, are called “overcomers” (2:10, 26). The faithless are thrown into the lake of fire, which represents the second death (21:8).
Faith and salvation. The role of faith in salvation is often hotly debated. Views are polarized between Christ as the object of faith and as the subject of faith. These views are designated as an objective genitive (faith in Christ), also known as an anthropological view, and a subjective genitive (the faithfulness of Christ), also known as a christological view. Thus, for example, Rom. 3:22 can be translated as “This righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe” (cf. NRSV) or as “This righteousness from God comes through the faithfulness of Jesus Christ for all who believe” (cf. NET). In the latter translation the faithfulness of Christ is seen as the agent of salvation.
In Eph. 2:8 the phrase “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith,” points to faith as instrumental in salvation. However, the source of that faith is not made clear. Does God provide the faith required to be saved, and thus the event is out of the hands of humanity? Or does salvation require a response from human beings in the form of faith—that is, trust?
In the Letter to the Romans, Paul indicates a correlation between grace and faith (Rom. 4:16; 5:1–2), and he shows that Abraham’s faith, his belief and unwavering hope in God’s faithfulness, was credited to him as righteousness (4:18–22). In the new covenant this righteousness likewise is credited to those who believe in God (4:23–24).
Faith and works. In Eph. 2:8–10 works are described as an outflow of the faith of believers: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God—not by works, so that no one can boast. For we are God’s handiwork, created in Christ Jesus to do good works, which God prepared in advance for us to do.”
Faith and works are also related in the letter of James, where works appear to be a prerequisite of faith, for faith without works is dead (2:26). While at first sight this might appear to contradict a Pauline understanding of faith and works (Rom. 3:19–5:1; Gal. 2:15–3:24), James and Paul use the word “works” differently. Paul uses it in terms of “obedience to the law,” something obsolete as a requirement in the new covenant. James, however, writes with regard to works of charity, not works of obedience to Jewish ritualistic law. Authentic faith, then, shows the evidence of good works—charity, the fruit of the Spirit.
Faith and the Church
Whereas baptism was a public initiation rite into the first-century Christian community, it was faith in Christ Jesus that was understood as establishing one’s membership in the family of God (Gal. 3:26). This membership was available to both Jews and Gentiles. Faith, the shared belief system in and confession of Jesus’ salvific work, became the common denominator in the Christian community. In Ephesians, faith is identified as one of the unifying elements of the church (Eph. 4:5). The prayer of faith heals the sick person in the church, another unifying element of applying faith (James 5:13–15).
Faith as a spiritual gift. According to the apostle Paul, the gift of faith is closely related to the life and functioning of the church (1Cor. 12:9). Mentioned among other gifts, or charismata (12:4), this aspect of faith is that benefit of salvation with which certain members of the church are graced and is used for the common good (12:7). This faith, then, is understood as edifying the Christian community at large rather than just the individual believer.
Faith and the Christian life. Christians are described as living by faith (2Cor. 5:7). Not only does faith lead people to Christ, but also Christ subsequently dwells in believers’ hearts through faith (Eph. 3:17). This Christian faith is subject to testing (James 1:2).
Faith is presented by Paul as present at different levels of growth among believers. Some Christians are weak in faith (Rom. 14:1), whereas others are strong in faith (15:1). Faith can differ in its strength of conviction (4:20–22; 14:5). It is presented as something that can grow (2Cor. 10:15).
Faith is grouped among gifts and virtues. Lifted out together with hope and love, faith is mentioned among gifts that edify believers in the church (1Cor. 13:13). Likewise, faith is mentioned as a Christian virtue among the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23).
The spectrum of meaning of “faith” and “faithfulness” may be applied both to God and to human beings. Cognates of “faith” are used interpersonally in human relationships but are used in the Bible specifically to denote the interaction between God and humanity, and human response to God. A question of theological pertinence is the degree to which one must distinguish between faith as an agent of personal belief and faith as an object of personal belief as pertaining to the relationship between God and human being.
In Hebrew the words most often translated “faith” or “faithful” are ’emunah and ’emet. In Greek the word rendered most frequently “faith” or “faithful” is pistis. In terms of their semantic domains, ’emunah and ’emet connote an objective sense of reliability (of persons) and stability (of inanimate objects); pistis conveys more of a subjective sense of placing confidence in a person, trusting in a person, or believing in a person or set of propositions. This subjective sense of pistis is correlated to considering the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence as reliable—“faithful.” Pistis likewise is used to communicate the quality of this person or belief as “committed” and “trustworthy.”
As noted, to some degree the meanings of the Hebrew and Greek terms overlap. However, certain dissimilarities are apparent as well. These observations play out in OT and NT expressions of faith. Martin Buber (1878–1965), a Jewish philosopher known for his academic work in the area of “faith,” distinguished between two types of faith: OT/Judaic faith, typified as tribal, national, and communal trust and fidelity based on the covenant; and NT/Christian faith, characterized as individual persuasion or belief in something.
Old Testament
Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.
Faithfulness as an attribute of God. Yahweh is presented in the OT as faithful to his promises, as faithfulness is a part of his very being. In the Torah the Israelites are reminded, “The Lord your God is God; he is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love to a thousand generations of those who love him and keep his commandments” (Deut. 7:9). Not only is God presented as keeping his covenant, but also the prophet Hosea calls God “the faithful Holy One” (Hos. 11:12). Isaiah likewise pre-sents faithfulness as an attribute of God (Isa. 49:7). The people can rest assured, for God is unchanging and reliable.
The psalmist speaks of Yahweh as the faithful God: “You have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God” (Ps. 31:5 NRSV); “he remains faithful forever” (Ps. 146:6). The translation “faithful” is warranted in these instances in the psalms. Its connotations are “truth” and “trustworthiness.” Yahweh is ascribed divine honor by his people recognizing and acknowledging his faithfulness and trustworthiness, and by responding to it in obedience as the people of God.
The faith of Abraham. Abraham’s (Abram’s) faith is used in the Bible as an example (Rom. 4:12; Gal. 3:6–9) in the sense that Abraham trusted God’s faithfulness in a way unequaled by other characters in the OT. Abraham lived in Mesopotamia when God spoke to him in a vision and told him that his descendants would be as innumerable as the stars in the sky (Gen. 15:1–5). Abraham trusted that God would be faithful to keep his promise despite insurmountable obstacles. This trust was credited to Abraham as righteousness (15:6). God subsequently initiated a covenant with Abraham (15:7–21).
Abraham’s life was characterized by his obedience to God and by his considering God to be faithful, something well noted by the early church (Heb. 11:8–11, 17–19) and used as an example of faith in the Christian walk (12:1). The three best-known examples of Abraham’s obedience and hence trust in God’s faithfulness are found consecutively in the departure from his homeland, the birth of his son Isaac, and the offering of Isaac as a sacrifice.
When God said to Abraham, “Go from your country, your people and your father’s household to the land I will show you” (Gen. 12:1), Abraham went as commanded (12:4). He obeyed despite his cultural disposition toward staying in the area of his ancestry and kin, and he went without knowledge of an appointed destination. Elderly and childless (12:7, 11–12), Abraham considered offspring to be impossible. However, Abraham trusted that God would be able to raise offspring for him, believing that he would become a great nation (12:2). His offspring Isaac was later reminded of the obedience of Abraham (26:5). Abraham’s greatest challenge of trust in God’s faithful provision came when he was commanded to offer his son Isaac as a burnt offering (22:2). He was commended for fearing God without reservation (22:12).
When the priest and initial leader of the Maccabean revolt, Mattathias, gave his farewell speech to his sons as he faced death in 166 BC, he placed his deeds along the lines of biblical heroes of faith such as Abraham. With likely reference to Abraham offering Isaac, he said, “Was not Abraham found faithful when tested, and it was reckoned to him as righteousness?” (1Macc. 2:52 NRSV). The early church likewise used this test in Abraham’s life as an example of his faithfulness, while at the same time claiming that the source for this faithfulness was found in faith—faith in God’s faithful provision (Heb. 11:17).
Faithfulness to the covenant. Faithfulness embodies the very core of the covenant relationship. God seeks a love relationship with humanity expressed in initiating his covenant. He is described as “abounding in love and faithfulness” (Exod. 34:6). His covenant love (Heb. khesed) is closely correlated to his faithfulness: “He is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love” (Deut. 7:9). Throughout the OT, Yahweh is shown as loyal to his covenant. Yahweh’s righteousness is seen in his faithfulness in keeping the covenant even when his people were disloyal and did not acknowledge his faithfulness. He delivered his people out of Egypt because of his covenant love and righteousness, as the psalmist declared: “But from everlasting to everlasting the Lord’s love is with those who fear him, and his righteousness with their children’s children—with those who keep his covenant and remember to obey his precepts” (Ps. 103:17–18). He delivered them out of their subsequent exile, declaring them righteous because their repentant hearts trusted in his faithfulness and sought to obey his covenant. Yahweh said, “If I have not made my covenant with day and night and established the laws of heaven and earth, then I will reject the descendants of Jacob and David my servant and will not choose one of his sons to rule over the descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. For I will restore their fortunes and have compassion on them” (Jer. 33:25–26).
God’s people, however, were expected to reciprocate and trust his faithfulness (1Chron. 16:15–16). When God met with Moses on Mount Sinai, he instructed Moses to tell the Israelites to obey the commands fully and to keep the covenant. It was only then that they would be a treasured possession, a holy nation (Exod. 19:5–6). The Israelites were expected to follow in obedience and thus reciprocate God’s faithfulness. The people of Israel often failed, but David and other godly people chose to be faithful to God and walk in his truth (Ps. 119:30; Heb. 11:4–38).
Faith counted as righteousness. Whereas faith is used throughout the OT in reference to God’s faithfulness and loyalty, it is used in Hab. 2:4 as pertaining to the faith of the righteous: “But the righteous will live by his faith” (NASB). In Rom. 1:17 Paul specifies, “For in the gospel a righteousness from God is revealed, a righteousness that is by faith from first to last, just as it is written: ‘The righteous will live by faith.’ ” He notes that God’s righteousness, even as revealed within OT promises, is by faith (“faith to faith,” or “faith, through and through”). By the parameters “from faith to faith,” Paul intends to exclude works of righteousness, a theme that he carries consistently in the first four chapters of Romans. Justification, for Habakkuk’s hearers, meant faithfulness, a single-minded focus on Yahweh to meet life’s essential needs. For Paul, salvation by way of justification meant that reliance upon Christ alone was foundational. In Pauline theology, faith is a thread connecting the old covenant with the new covenant.
New Testament
Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.
In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:28–29).
In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).
Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (Eph. 2:8).
In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).
In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1Pet. 1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).
Faith is rarely addressed in the book of Revelation. Rather, faithfulness is the objective. Christ is described as the faithful and true witness (Rev. 1:5; 3:14), the perfect example for believers. One of the believers in Asia Minor, Antipas, is identified as Christ’s witness and faithful one (2:13). Those believers who, like Antipas, are faithful unto death, are called “overcomers” (2:10, 26). The faithless are thrown into the lake of fire, which represents the second death (21:8).
Faith and salvation. The role of faith in salvation is often hotly debated. Views are polarized between Christ as the object of faith and as the subject of faith. These views are designated as an objective genitive (faith in Christ), also known as an anthropological view, and a subjective genitive (the faithfulness of Christ), also known as a christological view. Thus, for example, Rom. 3:22 can be translated as “This righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe” (cf. NRSV) or as “This righteousness from God comes through the faithfulness of Jesus Christ for all who believe” (cf. NET). In the latter translation the faithfulness of Christ is seen as the agent of salvation.
In Eph. 2:8 the phrase “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith,” points to faith as instrumental in salvation. However, the source of that faith is not made clear. Does God provide the faith required to be saved, and thus the event is out of the hands of humanity? Or does salvation require a response from human beings in the form of faith—that is, trust?
In the Letter to the Romans, Paul indicates a correlation between grace and faith (Rom. 4:16; 5:1–2), and he shows that Abraham’s faith, his belief and unwavering hope in God’s faithfulness, was credited to him as righteousness (4:18–22). In the new covenant this righteousness likewise is credited to those who believe in God (4:23–24).
Faith and works. In Eph. 2:8–10 works are described as an outflow of the faith of believers: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God—not by works, so that no one can boast. For we are God’s handiwork, created in Christ Jesus to do good works, which God prepared in advance for us to do.”
Faith and works are also related in the letter of James, where works appear to be a prerequisite of faith, for faith without works is dead (2:26). While at first sight this might appear to contradict a Pauline understanding of faith and works (Rom. 3:19–5:1; Gal. 2:15–3:24), James and Paul use the word “works” differently. Paul uses it in terms of “obedience to the law,” something obsolete as a requirement in the new covenant. James, however, writes with regard to works of charity, not works of obedience to Jewish ritualistic law. Authentic faith, then, shows the evidence of good works—charity, the fruit of the Spirit.
Faith and the Church
Whereas baptism was a public initiation rite into the first-century Christian community, it was faith in Christ Jesus that was understood as establishing one’s membership in the family of God (Gal. 3:26). This membership was available to both Jews and Gentiles. Faith, the shared belief system in and confession of Jesus’ salvific work, became the common denominator in the Christian community. In Ephesians, faith is identified as one of the unifying elements of the church (Eph. 4:5). The prayer of faith heals the sick person in the church, another unifying element of applying faith (James 5:13–15).
Faith as a spiritual gift. According to the apostle Paul, the gift of faith is closely related to the life and functioning of the church (1Cor. 12:9). Mentioned among other gifts, or charismata (12:4), this aspect of faith is that benefit of salvation with which certain members of the church are graced and is used for the common good (12:7). This faith, then, is understood as edifying the Christian community at large rather than just the individual believer.
Faith and the Christian life. Christians are described as living by faith (2Cor. 5:7). Not only does faith lead people to Christ, but also Christ subsequently dwells in believers’ hearts through faith (Eph. 3:17). This Christian faith is subject to testing (James 1:2).
Faith is presented by Paul as present at different levels of growth among believers. Some Christians are weak in faith (Rom. 14:1), whereas others are strong in faith (15:1). Faith can differ in its strength of conviction (4:20–22; 14:5). It is presented as something that can grow (2Cor. 10:15).
Faith is grouped among gifts and virtues. Lifted out together with hope and love, faith is mentioned among gifts that edify believers in the church (1Cor. 13:13). Likewise, faith is mentioned as a Christian virtue among the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23).
Beyond its obvious literal sense, “flesh” denotesthe physicality of one’s life in this world, often in contrastto the spiritual dimension. Both the OT (Heb. she’er, basar)and NT (Gk. sarx) use “flesh” to refer to the physicaldimension of human existence, often assigning varying degrees offigurative and contextual nuances to the word. “Flesh” asthe cover term for fallen humanity and sinfulness is a distinctive NTdevelopment. For example, the expression “all flesh” inthe OT is often merely equivalent to the collective human race (e.g.,Gen. 6:12; Isa. 40:5 KJV). Even when the term is used in contrast to“spirit” (e.g., Isa. 31:3; Jer. 17:5), “flesh”is not so much “antispiritual” as “nonspiritual.”John even refers to the mystery of incarnation as the Word becomingflesh (John 1:14).
Itis mostly in Paul’s letters that we find clear depiction offlesh as the seat of the carnal and sinful nature of humanity. Theflesh stands for the totality of destructive effects of the originalsin on the human nature. Thus, the flesh is in essence the sinfulnature that Adam left for all subsequent generations to inherit (Gal.5:17). Before it is redeemed and transformed, it is “sinfulflesh” (Rom. 8:3 NRSV) waiting to be condemned by the holy Godand his law, and inevitably leading to death (7:5). It is inseparablefrom lust (Gal. 5:16; 1Pet. 4:2). In the reprobate,unregenerate state, human nature in its entirety is under the controlof the flesh (Eph. 2:3). Since corrupt humans basically sow the fleshand reap the flesh, they can neither please God nor obey the law(Rom. 8:3, 8). It is significant that salvation is expressed in termsof overcoming the flesh. In wrapping up an exhortation regardingspiritual life, Paul concludes that those who nailed their flesh tothe cross along with its passions and desires are “those whobelong to Christ Jesus” (Gal. 5:24).
Literally, fruit is the seed-bearing part of a plant. Itconstitutes an important part of the diet in the ancient Near East.Common fruits are olives, grapes, and figs, though many othervarieties of fruit are also available, including apples, apricots,peaches, pomegranates, dates, and melons. Fruit trees play aprominent role as a food source in God’s creation andpreparation of the garden of Eden (Gen. 1–3). The law prohibitsthe Israelites from cutting down their enemy’s fruit trees(Deut. 20:19). The abundance of fruit trees characterizes the landthat God has prepared for Israel (Deut. 8:8; Neh. 9:25) as well asthe final restoration (Ezek. 47:12; Joel 2:22; Rev. 22:2).
Oneaspect of fruit is that it grows from a plant. This use of the termis often extended to represent what emerges from something else.Thus, fruit may represent offspring, whether human or animal (Deut.7:13; 28:4), one’s actions (Matt. 7:16–20), the result ofone’s actions or choices (Prov. 1:31; 10:16; Jer. 17:10), orwords coming from one’s mouth (Prov. 12:14; Heb. 13:15). In theNT especially, producing much fruit symbolizes performing deeds thatare pleasing to God (Matt. 3:8; 13:23; Mark 4:20; John 15:16; Rom.7:4; Col. 1:10). Those who live by the Spirit produce the fruit ofthe Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23). The apostle Paul speaks of the firstconverts in a particular region as being firstfruits, probablyreferring to their conversion as the result of the gospel beingpreached in the area (Rom. 16:5; 2Thess. 2:13).
The English word “heresy” comes from the Greekhairesis, which is used in the NT to refer to a sect, party, orschool. It is used to describe the Pharisees and the Sadducees (Acts5:17; 15:5; 26:5), and Christians are referred to in this way,although only by outsiders (24:5, 14; 28:22). Paul strongly condemnsthe tendency for Christian communities to separate into factions, andhe even lists factions as an obvious act of the sinful nature (1Cor.11:19; Gal. 5:20; cf. Titus 3:10). When using this word, he seemsprimarily concerned with the fractious attitudes of people in thechurch who violate Christian unity rather than incorrect doctrine.
Itis in the later NT writings that we see the word “heresy”used in connection with incorrect belief that is “destructive,”bringing “condemnation” to those that teach it (2Pet.2:1–3). The connotations from this passage—heresy as afalse teaching—became the dominant meaning for the word.Perhaps the use of the word “heresy” in this fashion camefrom the common condemnations by the early church of both falseteachings and schismatics who separated themselves from the widerChristian community.
Asgenerally used today, the word “heresy” indicates adeviation from accepted Christian teaching and belief extensiveenough to be considered an invalid and incompatible interpretation ofthe faith. Heretics (those who believe or expound heresies) claim anallegiance to the Christian faith, but they hold convictions that areperceived by the church universal to fundamentally alter the faith asreceived from the apostles.
Mostheresies involve a misunderstanding of the person of Christ or therelations of the persons within the Trinity. For example, a group ofearly believers who followed the teacher Arius taught that Jesus wasthe “first creation” of God the Father, and that he wasreally only quasi-divine. This may seem like a subtle and irrelevantdistinction to some, but it has the effect of making God ultimatelyunknown to the world, since the incarnation was not really God in theflesh, and Jesus is only another pale intermediary rather than trueLord. Councils of church leaders (bishops) declared Arianismincorrect at the Council of Nicaea in AD 325, and thus it isconsidered a heresy.
Thereis general agreement among the branches of Christianity (RomanCatholic, Eastern Orthodox, Protestant) about the falsehood of manyheresies that have appeared in the history of Christianity, but thereis still disagreement regarding some issues, as the Roman CatholicChurch proclaimed Martin Luther a heretic in his lifetime. While thechurch certainly must remain eternally vigilant against the spreadand acceptance of false and erroneous teachings, all too often theword “heresy” is used carelessly to reinforce the verydivisions that Paul would have condemned.
In Christian theology, the Third Person of the Trinity. Theusage derives from the NT, in which the divine Spirit is treated asan independent person who is instrumental in salvation and is worthyof the praise accorded to both the Father and the Son (John 14:16–23;Rom. 8:26–27; 1Pet. 1:2).
OldTestament
Thescarcity of the phrase “Holy Spirit” in the OT (only inPs. 51:11; Isa. 63:10–11) does not imply lack of interest orimportance. While it should be recognized that in the OT the personof the Holy Spirit receives nothing like the systematic reflectionfound in the NT, when one includes correlative terms, such as “Spiritof God,” “my Spirit,” “wind,” or“breath,” it is apparent that OT writers attributed greatsignificance to God’s Spirit. Thus, the Spirit was at work inthe beginning of creation (Gen. 1:2). Adam and Eve are uniquely givenlife by the breath of God (Gen. 2:7). The Spirit enables the buildingof the tabernacle (Exod. 31:3), gives voice to the message of theprophets (Num. 11:29; cf. 2Pet. 1:21), empowers Israel’sleaders (1Sam. 16:13), and provides access to God’spresence (Ps. 51:11). Yet in all this, the work of the Spirit in theOT is sporadic, occasional, and localized. Thus, the prophets longfor a new age when God’s people will more perfectly enjoy theSpirit’s presence (Isa. 32:15; 44:3; 61:1; Joel 2:28).
NewTestament
TheSpirit in the ministry of Christ.The NT views the OT prophetic hope for the Spirit as fulfilled in andthrough Jesus Christ (Luke 4:18–21). The unique relationshipbetween God’s Holy Spirit and the person and work of Jesusexplains the systemic reflection that the Holy Spirit receives in theNT. This is signaled at the very beginning of Jesus’ life, whenthe Holy Spirit “comes upon” Mary, overshadowing her with“the power of the Most High” (1:35). Similarly, at thestart of Jesus’ public ministry, the Holy Spirit “descendedon him” at baptism (3:22). This anointing by the Spiritinitiates and empowers Jesus’ public ministry, from hispreaching, to his miraculous works, to his perfect obedience (Luke4:14–18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38). Even his sacrificial death isaccomplished by the power of the Holy Spirit (Heb. 9:14).
Significantly,just as the Holy Spirit empowered the life and death of Jesus, so toois the Spirit responsible for his resurrection and characteristic ofhis glorious reign. Death is not a defeat for Jesus: he is“vindicated by the Spirit” (1Tim. 3:16), “appointedthe Son of God in power by his resurrection from the dead”(Rom. 1:4; cf. 1Pet. 3:18). Furthermore, at his resurrection,Jesus comes into a new phase of full and perfect possession of theeternal Spirit as the reward for his obedience. So complete is thisunion that Paul at one point claims that “the Lord is theSpirit” (2Cor. 3:17).
TheSpirit in the church and the believer.The church and its members are the immediate beneficiaries ofChrist’s spiritual fullness. Since Jesus is now a “life-givingspirit” through his resurrection and ascension (1Cor.15:45), he is able to fulfill the promise of Spirit baptism (Luke3:16). This baptism takes place in the outpouring of the Spirit atPentecost, which marks the birth of the NT church. The apostles,illuminated by the Holy Spirit, provide true and powerful testimonyabout Jesus (John 16:4–15), testimony that serves as thechurch’s foundation and principal tradition (Eph. 2:20). Thework of the Spirit continues within the church in the postapostolicage, uniting its members in Christ for God’s holy purpose (Eph.2:22).
Thissame outpouring of the Holy Spirit is the salvation of individualbelievers. Believers receive the Spirit by faith (Gal. 3:14). TheSpirit in turn unites them to Christ and all his benefits (Gal. 3:2;Eph. 1:3), including his life (Heb. 4:15–16), suffering (Phil.1:29; 1Pet. 4:14), death (Rom. 6:3), resurrection (Rom. 6:5),justification (Rom. 4:25), and glorious reign in heaven (Phil. 3:20).These benefits, though undoubtedly perfected and consummated only atChrist’s return (Phil. 1:6), are characteristic of believers’present experience, enjoyed now because the Spirit dwells within themas the “firstfruits” of the harvest to come (Rom. 8:23;cf. Gal. 2:19–20). This indwelling of the Spirit results in newbirth and new creation (2Cor. 5:17), a newness identified withthe life that Christ received in his resurrection (Rom. 8:11).
Forthis reason, believers are urged to further the work of the Spirit intheir lives until the bodily resurrection of all God’s people.They are to cultivate the “fruit of the Spirit” (Gal.5:22), and they are correspondingly warned not to “grieve theHoly Spirit” (Eph. 4:30). Furthermore, since new life isinitiated by the Spirit (John 3:6–8), Christians are to remainin that Spirit, not turning aside in reliance on vain and uselessprinciples (Gal. 3:1–5). Conversely, they are to be “filledwith the Spirit” (Eph. 5:18), putting off the old person andputting on the new (4:22). This filling grounds every aspect of thebeliever’s life, from obedience, to worship, to the hope ofresurrection. The Spirit, in uniting believers to all the riches ofChrist and his resurrection, is therefore central in the work ofsalvation. See also Spirit.
The NT tends to define immorality by listing specific sinsrather than speaking of immorality in the abstract (Matt. 15:19;1Cor. 5:11; 6:9–10; Gal. 5:19–21; Rev. 21:8;22:15). These lists include evil thoughts, murder, adultery, illicitsexual behavior, theft, false testimony, slander, greed, idolatry,drunkenness, swindling, male prostitution, hom*osexuality, impurity,debauchery, witchcraft, hatred, discord, jealousy, rage, selfishness,dissension and faction, envy, magic, and lying. In Galatians Paulfurther describes these actions as the “acts of the flesh“(5:19), in contrast with the “fruit of the Spirit”(5:22).
The NT tends to define immorality by listing specific sinsrather than speaking of immorality in the abstract (Matt. 15:19;1Cor. 5:11; 6:9–10; Gal. 5:19–21; Rev. 21:8;22:15). These lists include evil thoughts, murder, adultery, illicitsexual behavior, theft, false testimony, slander, greed, idolatry,drunkenness, swindling, male prostitution, hom*osexuality, impurity,debauchery, witchcraft, hatred, discord, jealousy, rage, selfishness,dissension and faction, envy, magic, and lying. In Galatians Paulfurther describes these actions as the “acts of the flesh“(5:19), in contrast with the “fruit of the Spirit”(5:22).
Jealousy has both positive and negative connotations in theBible. Positively, jealousy is an attribute of God, who desires theexclusive worship of his people: “Do not worship any other god,for the Lord, whose name is Jealous, is a jealous God” (Exod.34:14; cf. Exod. 20:5; Deut. 4:24; 1Cor. 10:22). Chief amongthe acts that provoke God to jealousy is the worship of idols (Deut.32:16; Ps. 78:58), to which God responds with anger and fury (Nah.1:2; Zeph. 1:18). God’s jealousy for his people (Joel 2:18;Zech. 1:14) is conceptually akin to the love of a husband for hiswife (2Cor. 11:2). Moreover, the language of jealousy isclosely related to pious “zeal” (Num. 25:11; 1Kings19:10). Negatively, jealousy is a human vice. Paul lists jealousyamong the “acts of the flesh” (Gal. 5:19–20; cf.1Cor. 3:3; Rom. 13:13). Biblical antagonists are often depictedas the victims of jealousy, including Joseph (Gen. 37:11; Acts 7:9)and Paul (Acts 17:5).
Joy is not a prevalent theme in most of the Bible. In fact,the word “joy” is completely missing from many books ofthe OT and appears only sporadically in many others. The lack ofprevalence of this word is understandable, since most of the Bibledeals with a world in which the humans are outside the garden ofEden.
OldTestament. Themost enthusiastic and concentrated expressions of joy in the OT arefound in the context of worship when the people of God find joy inhis presence, usually when the community is gathered for variousfeasts. Thus, words that connote joy are concentrated in Deuteronomy,Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah, Isaiah, and especially the Psalter.
Asone might expect, people are found rejoicing in the simple joys oflife: when meeting a close relative (Exod. 4:14), when their enemiesare defeated (1Sam. 18:6; 2Chron. 20:27), when a child isborn (Jer. 20:15), at the sound of music (Ps. 45:8), and when theyhear a good word (Prov. 12:25). Jonah is “exceedingly glad”(ESV; NIV: “very happy”) because a plant grew as a shadeover his head (Jon. 4:6). The teacher of Ecclesiastes urges hisstudents to rejoice in their youth (Eccles. 11:9), and he considersit a good thing to be joyful (3:12; 8:15). Wine may gladden the heartof humans (Ps. 104:15) and life in general (Eccles. 10:19). Moreimportant, men are encouraged both to bring joy to their young wives(Deut. 24:5 [NIV: “happiness”]) and to rejoice in thewife of their youth (Prov. 5:18). For the psalmist, the “teachings”of God are a reason for joy (Pss. 19:8; 119:111).
Itis by far more common, however, to find joy and delight in thepresence of God, especially when the community is gathered tocelebrate various feasts. The psalmist understands quite well thatmore than wine or a young wife, it is God who brings joy to hisservants (Ps. 86:4). Thus, the earliest calls to rejoice are alwaysin the presence of God (Lev. 23:40; Deut. 12:7, 12, 18; 14:26; 16:11;26:11). Psalm 16:11 is a good example: “You make known to methe path of life; you will fill me with joy in your presence, witheternal pleasures at your right hand.”
Forthe prophet Habakkuk, even if the crops fail and there is nothingleft to eat, he finds reason for joy in God, the only one who canbring salvation: “Yet I will rejoice in the Lord, I will bejoyful in God my Savior” (Hab. 3:18). This verse is importantbecause it shows that the people of God must be able to rejoice apartfrom material blessings, and also because it unites two centralreasons for joy in the OT: God and his salvation (Pss. 9:14; 21:1;Isa. 25:9; 61:10). The prophet Zechariah looks forward to a time ofgreat joy when a righteous king will bring salvation to Zion (Zech.9:9). Finally, real and complete joy can exist only when and whereGod reigns (1Chron. 16:31; Ps. 97:1).
NewTestament. Thetime of joy and salvation anticipated by the prophets begins to findfulfillment in the NT. The Gospels interpret the prophecy in Zech.9:9 as referring to Jesus (Mark 11:9–10; Luke 19:37–38),and there is a strong note of joy already at Jesus’ birth(Matt. 2:10; Luke 1:47; 2:10). Jesus’ life (Luke 10:17; John3:29) and resurrection also evoke intense joy (Matt. 28:8; Luke24:52). In the Gospel of John, joy becomes the result of a deepfellowship between Jesus and the church (John 16:22; see also 1John1:3–4), and in Acts it marks the life of the early church (Acts2:46; 8:8; 13:52; 15:3).
Pauluses joy in at least three ways. First, progress in faith of thechildren of God, particularly those whom Paul has led to Christ, is agreat cause for joy (1Thess. 2:19–20; cf. Phil. 2:2).Second, Paul stresses the paradox that joy may be the outcome ofsuffering and even sorrow for Christ’s sake (2Cor. 6:10;Col. 1:24; cf. 1Pet. 4:13). Thus, Paul’s letter to thePhilippians, even though written under circ*mstances of greatsuffering, is also the most joyous of all his letters (Phil. 2:2;3:1; 4:4). Third, joy is a gift of the Holy Spirit (Gal. 5:22), andtrue believers should be careful in their daily walk with the Lord toavoid “interrupting” this gift.
Thelast word on joy is appropriately found in the book of Revelation:“Let us rejoice and be glad and give him glory! For the weddingof the Lamb has come, and his bride has made herself ready”(19:7).
The kingdom of God is a major theme in the Bible. While thetheme is most fully developed in the NT, its originis the OT,where the emphasis falls on God’s king-ship. God is king ofIsrael (Exod. 15:18; Num. 23:21; Deut. 33:5; Isa. 43:15) and of allthe earth (2Kings 19:15; Pss. 29:10; 99:1–4; Isa. 6:5;Jer. 46:18). Juxtaposed to the concept of God’s present reignas king are references to a day when God will become king over hispeople (Isa. 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Zeph. 3:15; Zech. 14:9). Thisemphasis on God’s kingship continues throughout Judaism andtakes on special significance in Jewish apocalypticism and itsanticipation of the kingdom of God in the age to come, whichabandoned any hope for present history. Only at the end of the agewill the kingdom of God come. This idea of God’s kingdom isfurther developed throughout the NT.
TheSynoptic Gospels
Inthe Synoptic Gospels the phrase “the kingdom of God”occurs over one hundred times in Mark, Luke, and Matthew (where“kingdom of heaven” is a synonym for “kingdom ofGod”). Three views have been defended regarding whether and towhat extent the kingdom of God was present in Jesus’ ministry.In other words, how are we to interpret the phrase “kingdom ofGod” in the Synoptics? The three views are consistenteschatology, realized eschatology, and inaugurated eschatology.
Consistenteschatology.Albert Schweitzer, a biblical scholar from the late nineteenthcentury, first popularized consistent eschatology. Here, “consistent”means consistent with the apocalyptic Judaism of Jesus’ day,which interpreted the kingdom of God as something coming in thefuture. Judaism at the time of Christ divided history into twoperiods: this age of sin, when sin rules, and the age to come, whenthe Messiah is expected to bring the kingdom of God to earth.Schweitzer concluded that an apocalyptic understanding of the kingdomwas foundational not only for Christ’s teaching, but also tounderstanding his life. Thus, Schweitzer maintained that Jesusbelieved that it was his vocation to become the coming Son of Man.Initially, Jesus revealed this messianic secret only to Peter, James,and John. Later, Peter told it to the rest of the Twelve. Judas toldthe secret to the high priest, who used it as the grounds for Jesus’execution (Mark 14:61–64; cf. Dan. 7:13).
Accordingto Schweitzer, when Jesus sent out the Twelve on a mission toproclaim the coming kingdom of God, he did not expect them to return.The Twelve were the “men of violence” (cf. Matt. 11:12)who would provoke the messianic tribulation that would herald thekingdom. Whereas some earlier scholars believed that one could onlywait passively for the kingdom, Schweitzer believed that the missionof Jesus was designed to provoke its coming. When this did nothappen, Jesus determined to give his own life as a ransom for many(Mark 10:45) and so cause the kingdom to come.
Accordingto Schweitzer, Jesus took matters into his own hands by precipitatinghis death, hoping that this would be the catalyst for God to make thewheel of history turn to its climax—the arrival of the kingdomof God. But, said Schweitzer, Jesus was wrong again, and he died indespair. So for Schweitzer, Jesus never witnessed the dawning of theage to come; it lay in the distant future, separated from thispresent age.
Onthe positive side, Schweitzer called attention to the fact that themessage of Jesus is rooted in first-century apocalyptic Judaism andits concept of the kingdom of God. This connection is stillfoundational to a proper understanding of biblical prophecy and theGospels today. On the negative side, Schweitzer’s selective useof evidence and rejection of the historicity of much of the Gospeltradition resulted in a skewed perspective on the present dimensionsof Jesus’ eschatology.
Realizedeschatology.In contrast to futurist eschatology, where the kingdom of God awaitsa final consummation at the end of history, realized eschatologyviews the kingdom of God as already realized in the person andmission of Jesus. The futurist aspects of Jesus’ teaching arereduced to a minimum, and his apocalyptic language is viewed assymbolic of theological truths.
Theperson most responsible for advocating this position is Britishscholar C.H. Dodd. In his 1935 book Parables of the Kingdom, hefocused on Jesus’ teachings that announced the arrival of thekingdom with his coming. For instance, in Luke 11:20 Jesus says, “Butif I drive out demons by the finger of God, then the kingdom of Godhas come upon you” (cf. Luke 17:21; Matt. 13). Eschatologybecomes a matter of the present experience rather than any kind offuture event. The kingdom has fully come in the messianic ministry ofJesus.
Mostinterpreters have criticized Dodd’s realized eschatology forignoring Jesus’ teachings that point to a future consummationof the kingdom (e.g., Matt. 24–25; Mark 13). When all of Jesus’teachings are considered, futurist eschatology balances realizedeschatology. To be sure, the kingdom arrived with Jesus, but Jesushimself taught that history still awaits a final completion. Thekingdom of God is both “already” and “not yet,”which leads us to the third view of the relationship of the kingdomof God to the ministry of Jesus Christ.
Inauguratedeschatology. Thethird view, inaugurated eschatology, is commonly connected with thetwentieth-century Swiss theologian Oscar Cullmann. Like others beforehim, Cullmann understood that the Jewish notion of the two agesformed an important background for understanding the message ofJesus. According to Judaism, history is divided into two periods:this age of sin and the age to come (i.e., the kingdom of God). ForJews the advent of the Messiah would effect the shift from the formerto the latter. In other words, Judaism viewed the two ages asconsecutive. According to Cullmann, Jesus Christ announced that theend of time, the kingdom of God, had arrived within history (see Mark1:15 pars.; esp. Luke 4:43; 6:20; 7:28; 8:1, 10; 9:2, 11, 27, 60, 62;10:9, 11; 11:20; 13:18, 20; 16:16; 17:20–21; 18:16–17,24–25, 29; Acts 28:31). Yet other passages suggest thatalthough the age to come had already dawned, it was not yet complete.It awaited the second coming for its full realization (Luke 13:28–29;14:15; 19:11; 21:31; 22:16, 18; 23:51; Acts 1:6). Hence the adjective“inaugurated” characterizes this eschatology. Such a viewis pervasive in the NT (see, e.g., Acts 2:17–21; 3:18, 24;1Cor. 15:24; 1Tim. 4:1; 2Tim. 3:1; Heb. 1:2; 1John2:18). So for inaugurated eschatology, the two ages are simultaneous:the age to come exists in the midst of this present age. Christianstherefore live in between the two ages until the parousia (secondcoming of Christ).
Wemay break down the data in the Synoptic Gospels regarding the“already/notyet” aspects concerning the kingdom ofGod in this manner: Mark, probably the first Gospel written, recordsJesus’ programmatic statement in 1:15: “The time hascome.... The kingdom of God has come near.”Mark, along with Luke and Matthew, then goes on to demonstrate thatJesus’ miracles, teachings, death, and resurrection inauguratedthe kingdom of God. Yet it is also clear from Matthew, Mark, and Lukethat the final manifestation of the kingdom has not yet happened. Wemay draw on Luke as representative of all three Synoptics. Luke’sGospel indicates that the kingdom was present for Jesus (Luke 7:28;8:10; 10:9–11; 11:20; 16:16; 17:20–21), but it alsoawaited the second coming for its completion (6:20–26; 11:2;12:49–50, 51–53; 13:24–30; 21:25–29;22:15–18, 30). The same dual aspect of the kingdom pertains toLuke’s second volume, Acts. The kingdom was present in Jesus’ministry and now through his disciples (Acts 1:3; 8:12; 19:8; 20:25;28:23–31), but it will not be completed until Christ comesagain (1:6; 14:22).
TheGospel of John
John’sGospel has only three references to the kingdom of God. Nicodemus wastold by Jesus that he needed to be born again to enter the kingdom ofGod (3:3–5). Yet Jesus’ kingdom is not worldly in nature,but spiritual (18:36). Although the Gospel of John contains both thepresent (“already”) aspect and the future (“notyet”) aspect, the focus is clearly on the present. This is whymany scholars label the Fourth Gospel the “Gospel of RealizedEschatology.” This emphasis on the “already” can beseen in John in the following ways: (1)Eternal life, orentrance into the kingdom of God, can be a present possession (3:5–6,36; 6:47, 51, 58; 8:51; 10:28; 11:24–26). (2)Theeschatological promise of sonship is granted to the believer in Jesusnow (1:12–13; 3:3–8; 4:14). (3)The generalresurrection has already begun (5:25). (4)The Spirit, the giftof the end time, currently indwells believers (7:37–39;14:15–31; 15:26–27; 16:5–16; 20:22–23).(5)Final judgment is determined by one’s present responseto Jesus (3:19; 5:22–24, 27, 30–38; 9:38; 12:31–33).(6)The spirit of antichrist has already entered the world sceneto oppose Christ (6:70; 13:2, 27). (7)Jesus’ death on thecross seems to absorb some elements of the messianic woes or aspectsof tribulation. In other words, Jesus’ passion was where theend-time holy war was waged, and his death and resurrection began theend of the forces of evil (15:18–16:11).
Onthe other hand, the Gospel of John also includes some typical future(“not yet”) aspects of eschatology. For example, thefuture resurrection is still expected (5:26–30). Likewise, thefuture second coming of Christ is alluded to (14:1–4; 21:22).Admittedly, however, the “already” aspect of the kingdomof God seems to overshadow the “not yet” perspective inthe Fourth Gospel.
PaulineLiterature
Thephrase “kingdom of God” and/or “kingdom of Christ”occurs twelve times in Paul’s writings.
Rom.14:17 – kingdom of God (present tense)
1Cor. 4:20 – kingdom of God (present tense)
1Cor. 6:9-10 – kingdom of God (2x) (future tense)
1Cor. 15:24 – kingdom of Christ/God (present/future tense)
1Cor. 15:50 – kingdom of God (future tense)
Gal.5:21 – kingdom of God (future tense)
Eph.5:5 – kingdom of Christ/God (future tense)
Col.1:13 – kingdom of the Son (present tense)
Col.4:11 – kingdom of God (present tense)
1Thess. 2:12 – his [God’s] kingdom (future tense)
2Thess. 1:5 – kingdom of God (future tense)
Threeobservations emerge from the chart: (1)The kingdom ofChrist/God is both present and future, already here and not yetcomplete. This is consistent with the Gospels and Acts. (2)Christand God are, in at least two instances, interchanged, suggestingequality of status between them (cf. Eph. 5:5; Rev. 11:15; 12:10).(3)In 1Cor. 15:24 we find the most precise description ofthe exact relationship between the kingdoms of Christ and God: theinterim messianic kingdom begun at the resurrection of Christ willone day give way to the eternal kingdom of God. Such a temporarykingdom is attested to in apocalyptic Judaism and may underlie Rev.20:1–6.
Christianstherefore live in between the two ages, in the messianic kingdom.
Hebrewsand the General Epistles
Hebrewsand the General Epistles continue the theme of the “already/notyet”aspects of the kingdom.
Hebrews.The following ideas associated in Second Temple Judaism with thearrival of God’s kingdom are seen by the author of Hebrews tohave been fulfilled at the first coming of Christ: (1)theappearance of the Messiah of the last days indicates the dawning ofthe kingdom of God (1:2; 9:9–10); (2)the greattribulation/messianic woes that were expected to occur in connectionwith the advent of the Messiah are now here (2:5–18; cf. 5:8–9;7:27–28; 10:12; 12:2); (3)the outpouring of the HolySpirit has happened (6:4–5); (4)the manifestation of theeschatological high priest at the end of history has taken place inJesus (7:26–28), who has also established the new covenant ofthe last days (8:6–13). Compare the preceding statements inHebrews with that author’s explicit mention of the presence ofthe kingdom of God in 12:18–28. And yet the kingdom of God isnot yet fully here. The church continues to suffer the messianicwoes, as is evidenced in the intermingling of Jesus’ sufferingof the great tribulation with the present afflictions of theChristian (2:5–18; 3:7–4:6; 5:7–6:12; 10:19–39;12:1–2; 13:11–16). Furthermore, the exhortations topersevere in the faith that punctuate the book of Hebrews (2:1–4;3:7–4:13; 5:11–6:12; 10:19–39; 12:14–29) area familiar theme in Jewish and Christian apocalyptic literature.
TheGeneral Epistles.The main message of James is that the last days are here (1:2; 5:3)and with it the messianic woes (1:2–12; 5:1–12).Therefore, believers will need to faithfully endure the greattribulation until the second coming of Christ. But there are twoindications that James also teaches that the kingdom of God hasdawned in the midst of the great tribulation. First, Christiansexperience even now the eschatological quality of joy (James 1:2–3;cf. Joel 2:21–27). Second, Christians also share in theend-time gift of wisdom (James 1:5–8).
FirstPeteris similar to James with regard to its inaugurated eschatology. Thus,the church suffers the messianic woes/great tribulation (1Pet.1:6, 11; 3:13–17; 4:12–19; 5:1–9). Nevertheless,the age to come/kingdom of God has broken into the midst of this age,as evidenced by the eschatological joy and God’s protectivepower that it brings (1:5–6).
SecondPeterdoes seem to stress the “not yet” aspect of the kingdomof God. Thus, the kingdom of God still waits to be entered (1:11), ishindered by end-time apostasy (2Pet. 2), and has been postponed(3:1–10). Yet the “already” aspect of the kingdomis not entirely absent. This is evidenced by the fact that thetransfiguration of Christ on the mountain was a display of the comingpower and glory of the age to come, a glory revealed to the discipleson the mountain and now communicated to all believers (1:16–19).
Judeis devoted to alerting Christians to the reality that they are in themidst of the end-time holy war (vv. 3, 20–23), as can be seenby their struggle with the false teaching of end-time apostasy (vv.5–19). Nevertheless, because believers possess theeschatological gift of the Holy Spirit, they will prevail to fullyenter the kingdom of God (v.20).
TheLetters of John attest to the overlapping of the two ages—thatis, inaugurated eschatology. Thus, on the one hand, the spirit ofantichrist is here (1John 2:18; 2John 7), along with thefalse teaching that it breeds (1John 2:20–29; cf. 2–3John); but on the other hand, the Johannine community has theend-time anointing of the Holy Spirit, which preserves believers fromevil and deception (1John 2:20–21; 3:1–10).Moreover, Christians presently have eternal life through Christ, oneof the blessings of the kingdom of God (1John 5:11–13).
Revelation
The“already/notyet” aspects of the kingdom of God aremanifested in Revelation in the following way: the kingdom of God hasalready dawned in heaven, but it has not yet appeared on earth.Regarding the former, it is clear from 1:9; 5:1–14; 12:1–6that Jesus’ death and resurrection inaugurated the advent ofthe kingdom of God in heaven. Thus, Jesus obediently underwent themessianic woes on the cross and was then raised to heavenly glory,triumphant over the great tribulation. There in heaven, Christ reignsas the invisible Lord over all (including Caesar). But that thekingdom of God has not yet descended to earth is clear in Revelationfrom two present realities. First, even though Jesus has endured thegreat tribulation/messianic woes, his followers continue to face manytrials (chaps. 6–18). There is no deliverance for them fromsuch affliction until the return of Christ in glory (chap. 19). Theonly possible exception to this is the divine protection of the144,000 (chaps. 7; 14). Second, the kingdom of God has not appearedon earth; that event awaits the parousia (chap. 20 [assuming that thepremillennial interpretation of that chapter is the most viablereading]). In all of this, it seems that the messianic woes/greattribulation are the divine means for purging the earth in preparationfor the future arrival of the temporal, messianic kingdom (chap. 20).After Christ’s one-thousand-year reign on earth, this temporalmessianic kingdom will give way to the eternal kingdom of God and itsnew earth and new heaven (chaps. 21–22). It must beacknowledged, however, that interpretations of chapters 20–22greatly vary, depending on whether one takes a premillennial,amillennial, or postmillennial perspective.
Conclusion
Thepreceding data thus seem to confirm that the most apt description ofthe relationship between the two ages and the kingdom of God thatinforms the NT is inaugurated eschatology: with the first coming ofChrist, the kingdom of God/the age to come dawned, but it will not beuntil the second coming of Christ that the age to come/kingdom of Godwill be complete. The church therefore lives in between the times.That is to say, the age to come has broken into this present age, andit is only through the eye of faith that one can now perceive thepresence of the kingdom of God.
Six times the KJV translates the Greek word aselgeia asdescribing the evil behavior of “lasciviousness.” The NIVtranslates the Greek word in these same contexts as “lewdness”(Mark 7:22), “debauchery” (2Cor. 12:21; Gal. 5:19;1Pet. 4:3), “sensuality” (Eph. 4:19), and “licensefor immorality” (Jude 4).
OldTestament
Preconditionsto love. Accordingto the OT, three preconditions must exist for us to know what itmeans to love.
First,we have the capacity for relationships because we are made in thelikeness of a personal God. God created us to reciprocate love backto him, in a relationship of mutual love.
Second,the true meaning of love depends on a true understanding of God,whose love causes him to pursue human beings even though their heartshave turned away from him for other substitute “loves.”This second point assumes that human beings still love, but they doso in a way distorted by sin. Sin causes human beings to live theirlives as though God did not exist. However, God in his mercy haschosen to intervene through his redemptive acts in history andthrough revelatory speech in order to deliver people from theblindness and corruption of sin. His pursuit of his unfaithful sonsand daughters gives us a picture of what true love looks like.
Third,God’s pursuit of human beings in history was by means ofelection and the establishment of a covenant. God chose to makehimself known to a particular people, those who would descend fromAbraham. God called Abraham to leave his country and go to a newplace that he would inherit as a new homeland, where his descendantswould be blessed (Gen. 12:1–3; 15; 17). God’s promise toAbraham took the form of an everlasting covenant, by which heguaranteed that he would fulfill what he had promised. He would bethe God of Abraham’s descendants, and they would be his people.They would receive the land of Canaan as an inheritance (17:6–8).In response, Abraham’s descendants were to obey God’scovenant by circumcising their male children (17:9–14). Thiscovenant would depend not on human faithfulness but on God’sfaithfulness. God would redeem this people to be his own specialpeople.
Severalgenerations later, God addressed the people through Moses, tellingthem that he chose them for no other reason than that he loved them(Deut. 7:7–8). Through Moses, God freed the people from theirslavery in Egypt and gave them the law. The law told them how to liveholy lives in response to God. It also included the provisions foratonement through the sacrificial system. In short, loving Godinvolved obeying his statutes.
Lovein wisdom books.The OT wisdom books Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes give us furtherinsight into the meaning of love. Proverbs exhorts its readers,“Above all else, guard your heart, for everything you do flowsfrom it” (4:23). One’s affections are the gateway to theallegiances of one’s heart. Once one’s affections havebeen hijacked by sinful passions, allegiance to God is subjugated toanother “master.” To the degree that sin usurps thethrone of the heart, it will steer the course of one’s actions(i.e., one’s “path”).
Inthe book of Job, Satan is convinced that Job serves God only becauseGod blesses Job, so Satan challenges God to let him afflict Job.Satan insists that if God removes Job’s blessings, Job willcurse God to his face (1:10–12). When God agrees to remove thehedge of protection and allows Job to suffer, the depth of Job’slove for God is vindicated. Although perplexed that God would allowhim to endure such suffering, he endures without forsaking God. Jobloved the giver more than his gifts, so his love did not turn tohatred when the gifts of God were removed.
Inthe book of Ecclesiastes, Qoheleth (the Teacher) reflects honestly onthe many vain pursuits and unexplainable dissonances thatcharacterize life “under the sun.” Only faith-filled lovefor God can enable one to live each moment of life with joy insteadof striving to find meaning in “under the sun” pursuits.This love chooses to trust the inscrutable wisdom of God in the faceof life’s many enigmas, uncertainties, and sufferings. One cando this honestly because of the belief that God’s just ruleover the affairs of the universe will be vindicated at the future dayof judgment (Eccles. 12:14).
Marriagemetaphor.The Bible uses the metaphor of marriage to describe God’scovenant relationship with his people (Isa. 54:5–8). Thismetaphor captures the intimate character of the relationship that Goddesires to have with his people. Marriage is the most intimate humanrelationship in two ways. First, marriage is a relationship in whichknowledge is the most intimate. A spouse can see many of the flawsthat are hidden from others. Thus, each spouse must accept and lovethe other for who that person is, in spite of his or herimperfections. Second, the depth and passion of the expressions oflove are most intimate in marriage. Consequently, there is no greaterpain than that caused by unfaithfulness to this covenant.
Sadly,as the story of the OT unfolds, God’s “wife”betrays him. How so? His people worship idols in their hearts (Ezek.14:1–5). Because God is jealous for the exclusive love of hispeople, idolatry is spiritual unfaithfulness. God wants both theallegiance and the affection of their hearts to be reservedexclusively for him. The people continue the formalities of worship,but their hearts have turned away from God. The book of Hoseaillustrates the sense of betrayal that God feels when his people arespiritually unfaithful. God tells Hosea to marry a woman who will beunfaithful to him. Subsequently, she leaves Hosea for one lover afteranother. This story is intended to give God’s people a vividpicture of how painful their spiritual betrayal of him is. His heartis crushed by the rebellious and idolatrous condition of his people.Hosea’s wife ends up on the market as a prostitute, and Godtells him to buy her back and love her again.
NewTestament
Thestory of God’s love for his people is expanded by what theFather did centuries later when he sent Jesus to pay the ransom forthe sins of his people so that they might be healed of theirrebellion and receive eternal life (John 3:16; 17:24). The death andresurrection of Christ were necessary because sin had to be atonedfor. This love is a free gift that comes to the one who trusts inChrist for forgiveness of sin and a new heart. The new heart inclinesone to please God. The gift of the Spirit enables one to bear the“fruit” of love (Gal. 5:22–23). As Abraham’sengrafted children (Gal. 3:7), believers are called by God to live aspilgrims on their way to a heavenly promised land (Heb. 11:9–10;1Pet. 2:11).
Christmodeled genuine love by serving us (Mark 10:42–45). His loveshould motivate us and enable us to practice sacrificial servicetoward others (Matt. 22:39; 1John 3:16). It should also causeus to practice forbearance, long-suffering, and forgiveness towardthose who wrong us (Matt. 18:21–35). It should cause us torepay evil with good (Rom. 12:14). Our love for truth should motivateus to act in the best interests of others (1Cor. 13:4–8)in the hope that they may become reconciled to God (2Tim.2:24–26).
In modern cultures, lust typically is associated withindulging in illegitimate sexual fantasizing. In Scripture, however,the word “lust” is sometimes used to translate Greek andHebrew words that have a wider range of meanings. “Lust”can refer to an inordinate (i.e., idolatrous) passion that rulesone’s heart, whether or not one acts upon it. After Moses ledthe children of Israel in the desert for some time, they became tiredof the manna that God was providing and began to “crave”the delicacies that they had enjoyed in Egypt. Their inordinatedesire for meat caused them to become disgruntled and complain toMoses (Num. 11:4–9). The desire became idolatrous when itmorphed from a legitimate desire into a demand.
TheBible distinguishes between temptation, which appeals to one’sdesire (1Cor. 10:13), and lust, which takes captive one’saffections and imagination, enslaving a person. “Each person istempted when they are dragged away by their own evil desire andenticed. Then, after desire has conceived, it gives birth to sin; andsin, when it is full-grown, gives birth to death” (James1:14–15). There are good desires that turn into sinful ones,but there are also desires that are inherently sinful. Jesusidentified an inward yearning to have another person’s spouseas adultery, because affections and imagination have been hijacked bydesire for emotional and sexual fulfillment outside the legitimatecontext of marriage (Matt. 5:28). By the Spirit, we are to mortifyinordinate desires (Gal. 5:16–18).
Patience is a moral attribute that God possesses and thathumans may possess. One who has patience allows time to pass whilemaintaining a positive disposition, often in the face of suffering(Hab. 3:16; 2Tim. 3:10–11; James 5:10), as the KJVtranslation “longsuffering” implies (cf. Prov. 14:29NASB: “slow to anger”). The Scriptures universally speakof patience as an admirable quality and associate patience with othervirtues, such as inner peace (Ps. 37:7), wisdom (Prov. 19:11),persuasiveness (Prov. 25:15), humility (Eccles. 7:8), and kindness(Rom. 2:4; 1Cor. 13:4).
Numerouspassages praise God’s patience. Humans try (Isa. 7:13) and showcontempt for (Rom. 2:4) God’s patience, sometimes by refusingto be patient with others even though they themselves have receivedmercy from God (Matt. 18:23–35). Nonetheless, God displays hispatience by granting them eternal life through faith in Christ(1Tim. 1:16). In fact, God has patiently delayed destroying theworld because he is compassionate and wants all to come to repentance(2Pet. 3:9). God’s patience is evident even toward thosewho are destined for destruction (Rom. 9:22; 1Pet. 3:20).
Justas God is patient, he imparts patience to the Christian through hisHoly Spirit (Gal. 5:22). Like Abraham, the prophets, and any farmer,Christians are to exhibit patience, bearing with people both insideand outside the church (Eph. 4:2; 1Thess. 5:14–15) asthey wait eagerly for Christ’s return (Heb. 6:12–15;James 5:7–10). Those in Christian leadership must modelpatience and encourage others with patience (2Tim. 3:10; 4:2).
Boisterous merrymaking. Although God often commands hispeople to rejoice, be glad, and celebrate (e.g., Deut. 16:14; Zeph.3:14), revelry differs in its excess, attitude, and associations. Itis connected with idolatry (Exod. 32:6; 1Cor. 10:7), pride(Zeph. 3:11), self-indulgence (2Pet. 2:13), and a carpe diemattitude (Isa. 22:13), and is notably lacking after God’sjudgment (Isa. 22:2; 23:7, 12; 24:8; 32:12; Zeph. 2:15). The KJV usesthe term “revellings” as a work of the flesh (Gal. 5:21)and as an example of Gentile behavior (1Pet. 4:3), where moderntranslations generally have “orgies” (NIV, ESV) or“carousing” (NASB).
A group or faction with distinctive beliefs and practices.The author of Acts uses “sect” (Gk. hairesis) inreference to the Sadducees, the Pharisees, and Christians, withoutpejorative connotations (Acts 5:17; 15:5; 24:5, 14; NIV: “party”at 5:17; 15:5). Paul’s use of the term is more critical (e.g.,Gal. 5:20).
Self-control involves the willingness to submit to theboundaries of nature, society, and family that God places in theworld to bring about order and harmony in relationships. Theself-restraint of an individual’s thoughts, words, and actionsreflects the ordered discipline of God’s creation (Gen. 1–3;8:22; Prov. 6:6–8). Discipline of the self is essential to livea productive life in community (Prov. 25:28).
“Self-control”is one of the terms that Luke uses to summarize Paul’s messageto Felix (Acts 24:25). God’s people must exercise self-control(1Thess. 5:6; 2Tim. 1:7; 2Pet. 1:6). Ultimately,self-control is a gift, a fruit that comes from being in submissionto God’s Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23).
There are few subjects more prominent in the Bible than sin;hardly a page can be found where sin is not mentioned, described, orportrayed. As the survey that follows demonstrates, sin is one of thedriving forces of the entire Bible.
Sinin the Bible
OldTestament.Sin enters the biblical story in Gen. 3. Despite God’scommandment to the contrary (2:16–17), Eve ate from the tree ofthe knowledge of good and evil at the prompting of the serpent. WhenAdam joined Eve in eating the fruit, their rebellion was complete.They attempted to cover their guilt and shame, but the fig leaveswere inadequate. God confronted them and was unimpressed with theirattempts to shift the blame. Judgment fell heavily on the serpent,Eve, and Adam; even creation itself was affected (3:17–18).
Inthe midst of judgment, God made it clear in two specific ways thatsin did not have the last word. First, God cryptically promised toput hostility between the offspring of the serpent and that of thewoman (Gen. 3:15). Although the serpent would inflict a severe blowupon the offspring of the woman, the offspring ofthe womanwould defeat the serpent. Second, God replaced the inadequatecovering of the fig leaves with animal skins (3:21). The implicationis that the death of the animal functioned as a substitute for Adamand Eve, covering their sin.
InGen. 4–11 the disastrous effects of sin and death are on fulldisplay. Not even the cataclysmic judgment of the flood was able toeradicate the wickedness of the human heart (6:5; 8:21). Humansgathered in rebellion at the tower of Babel in an effort to make aname for themselves and thwart God’s intention for them toscatter across the earth (11:1–9).
Inone sense, the rest of the OT hangs on this question: How will a holyGod satisfy his wrath against human sin and restore his relationshipwith human beings without compromising his justice? The short answeris: through Abraham and his offspring (Gen. 12:1–3), whoeventually multiplied into the nation of Israel. After God redeemedthem from their slavery in Egypt (Exod. 1–15), he brought themto Sinai to make a covenant with them that was predicated onobedience (19:5–6). A central component of this covenant wasthe sacrificial system (e.g., Lev. 1–7), which God provided asa means of dealing with sin. In addition to the regular sacrificesmade for sin throughout the year, God set apart one day a year toatone for Israel’s sins (Lev. 16). On this Day of Atonement thehigh priest took the blood of a goat into the holy of holies andsprinkled it on the mercy seat as a sin offering. Afterward he took asecond goat and confessed “all the iniquities of the people ofIsrael, and all their transgressions, all their sins, putting them onthe head of the goat, and sending it away into the wilderness....The goat shall bear on itself all their iniquities to a barrenregion; and the goat shall be set free in the wilderness” (Lev.16:21–22 NRSV). In order for the holy God to dwell with sinfulpeople, extensive provisions had to be made to enable fellowship.
Despitethese provisions, Israel repeatedly and persistently broke itscovenant with God. Even at the highest points of prosperity under thereign of David and his son Solomon, sin plagued God’s people,including the kings themselves. David committed adultery and murder(2Sam. 11:1–27). Solomon had hundreds of foreign wivesand concubines, who turned his heart away from Yahweh to other gods(1Kings 11:1–8). Once the nation split into two (Israeland Judah), sin and its consequences accelerated. Idolatry becamerampant. The result was exile from the land (Israel in 722 BC, Judahin 586 BC). But God refused to give up on his people. He promised toraise up a servant who would suffer for the sins of his people as aguilt offering (Isa. 52:13–53:12).
AfterGod’s people returned from exile, hopes remained high that thegreat prophetic promises, including the final remission of sins, wereat hand. But disillusionment quickly set in as the returnees remainedunder foreign oppression, the rebuilt temple was but a shell ofSolomon’s, and a Davidic king was nowhere to be found. Beforelong, God’s people were back to their old ways, turning awayfrom him. Even the priests, who were charged with the administrationof the sacrificial system dealing with the sin of the people, failedto properly carry out their duties (Mal. 1:6–2:9).
NewTestament.During the next four hundred years of prophetic silence, the longingfor God to finally put away the sins of his people grew. At last,when the conception and birth of Jesus were announced, it wasrevealed that he would “save his people from their sins”(Matt. 1:21). In the days before the public ministry of Jesus, Johnthe Baptist prepared the way for him by “preaching a baptism ofrepentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Luke 3:3). Whereasboth Adam and Israel were disobedient sons of God, Jesus proved to bethe obedient Son by his faithfulness to God in the face of temptation(Matt. 2:13–15; 4:1–11; 26:36–46; Luke 3:23–4:13;Rom. 5:12–21; Phil. 2:8; Heb. 5:8–10). He was also theSuffering Servant who gave his life as a ransom for many (Mark 10:45;cf. Isa. 52:13–53:12). On the cross Jesus experienced the wrathof God that God’s people rightly deserved for their sin. Withhis justice fully satisfied, God was free to forgive and justify allwho are identified with Christ by faith (Rom. 3:21–26). Whatneither the law nor the blood of bulls and goats could do, JesusChrist did with his own blood (Rom. 8:3–4; Heb. 9:1–10:18).
Afterhis resurrection and ascension, Jesus’ followers beganproclaiming the “good news” (gospel) of what Jesus didand calling to people, “Repent and be baptized, every one ofyou, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins”(Acts 2:38). As people began to experience God’s forgiveness,they were so transformed that they forgave those who sinned againstthem (Matt. 6:12; 18:15–20; Col. 3:13). Although believerscontinue to struggle with sin in this life (Rom. 8:12–13; Gal.5:16–25), sin is no longer master over them (Rom. 6:1–23).The Holy Spirit empowers them to fight sin as they long for the newheaven and earth, where there will be no sin, no death, and no curse(Rom. 8:12–30; Rev. 21–22).
Aseven this very brief survey of the biblical story line from Genesisto Revelation shows, sin is a fundamental aspect of the Bible’splot. Sin generates the conflict that drives the biblical narrative;it is the fundamental “problem” that must be solved inorder for God’s purposes in creation to be completed.
Definitionand Terminology
Definitionof sin. Althoughno definition can capture completely the breadth and depth of theconcept of sin, it seems best to regard sin as a failure to conformto God’s law in thought, feeling, attitude, word, action,orientation, or nature. In this definition it must be remembered thatGod’s law is an expression of his perfect and holy character,so sin is not merely the violation of an impersonal law but rather isa personal offense against the Creator. Sin cannot be limited toactions. Desires (Exod. 20:17; Matt. 5:27–30), emotions (Gen.4:6–7; Matt. 5:21–26), and even our fallen nature ashuman beings (Ps. 51:5; Eph. 2:1–3) can be sinful as well.
Terminology.TheBible uses dozens of terms to speak of sin. Neatly classifying themis not easy, as there is significant overlap in the meaning and useof the various terms. Nonetheless, many of the terms fit in one ofthe following four categories.
1.Personal. Sin is an act of rebellion against God as the creator andruler of the universe. Rather than recognizing God’sself-revelation in nature and expressing gratitude, humankindfoolishly worships the creation rather than the Creator (Rom.1:19–23). The abundant love, grace, and mercy that God shows tohumans make their rebellion all the more stunning (Isa. 1:2–31).Another way of expressing the personal nature of sin is ungodlinessor impiety, which refers to lack of devotion to God (Ps. 35:16; Isa.9:17; 1Pet. 4:18).
2.Legal. A variety of words portray sin in terms drawn from thelawcourts. Words such as “transgression” and “trespass”picture sin as the violation of a specific command of God or thecrossing of a boundary that God has established (Num. 14:41–42;Rom. 4:7, 15). When individuals do things that are contrary to God’slaw, they are deemed unrighteous or unjust (Isa. 10:1; Matt. 5:45;Rom. 3:5). Breaking the covenant with God is described as violatinghis statutes and disobeying his laws (Isa. 24:5). The result isguilt, an objective legal status that is present whenever God’slaw is violated regardless of whether the individual subjectivelyfeels guilt.
3.Moral. In the most basic sense, sin is evil, the opposite of what isgood. Therefore, God’s people are to hate evil and love what isgood (Amos 5:14–15; Rom. 12:9). Similarly, Scripture contraststhe upright and the wicked (Prov. 11:11; 12:6; 14:11). One could alsoinclude here the term “iniquity,” which is used to speakof perversity or crookedness (Pss. 51:2; 78:38; Isa. 59:2). Frequentmention is also made of sexual immorality as an especially grievousdeparture from God’s ways (Num. 25:1; Rom. 1:26–27;1Cor. 5:1–11).
4.Cultic. In order for a person to approach a holy God, that individualhad to be in a state of purity before him. While a person couldbecome impure without necessarily sinning (e.g., a menstruating womanwas impure but not sinful), in some cases the term “impurity”clearly refers to a sinful state (Lev. 20:21; Isa. 1:25; Ezek.24:13). The same is true of the term “unclean.” Althoughit is frequently used in Leviticus to speak of ritual purity, inother places it clearly refers to sinful actions or states (Ps. 51:7;Prov. 20:9; Isa. 6:5; 64:6).
Metaphors
Inaddition to specific terms used for “sin,” the Bible usesseveral metaphors or images to describe it. The following four areamong the more prominent.
Missingthe mark.In both Hebrew and Greek, two of the most common words for “sin”have the sense of missing the mark. But this does not mean that sinis reduced to a mistake or an oversight. The point is not that aperson simply misses the mark of what God requires; instead, it isthat he or she is aiming for the wrong target altogether (Exod. 34:9;Deut. 9:18). Regardless of whether missing the mark is intentional ornot, the individual is still responsible (Lev. 4:2–31; Num.15:30).
Departingfrom the way.Sin as departing from God’s way is especially prominent in thewisdom literature. Contrasts are drawn between the way of therighteous and the way of the wicked (Ps. 1:1, 6; Prov. 4:11–19).Wisdom is pictured as a woman who summons people to walk in her ways,but fools ignore her and depart from her ways (Prov. 9:1–18).Those who do not walk in God’s ways are eventually destroyed bytheir own wickedness (Prov. 11:5; 12:26; 13:15).
Adultery.Since God’s relationship with his people is described as amarriage (Isa. 62:4–5; Ezek. 16:8–14; Eph. 5:25–32),it is not surprising that the Bible describes their unfaithfulness asadultery. The prophet Hosea’s marriage to an adulterous womanvividly portrays Israel’s unfaithfulness to Yahweh (Hos. 1–3).When the Israelites chase after other gods, Yahweh accuses them ofspiritual adultery in extremely graphic terms (Ezek. 16:15–52).When Christians join themselves to a prostitute or participate inidolatry, they too are engaged in spiritual adultery (1Cor.6:12–20; 10:1–22).
Slavery.Sin is portrayed as a power that enslaves. The prophets make it clearthat Israel’s bondage to foreign powers is in fact a picture ofits far greater enslavement to sin (Isa. 42:8; 43:4–7;49:1–12). Paul makes a similar point when he refers to thosewho do not know Christ as slaves to sin, unable to do anything thatpleases God (Rom. 6:1–23; 8:5–8). Sin is a cosmic powerthat is capable of using even the law to entrap people in its snare(Rom. 7:7–25).
Scopeand Consequences
Sindoes not travel alone; it brings a large collection of baggage alongwith it. Here we briefly examine its scope and consequences.
Scope.The stain of sin extends to every part of the created order. As aresult of Adam’s sin, the ground was cursed to resist humanefforts to cultivate it, producing thorns and thistles (Gen.3:17–18). The promised land is described as groaning under theweight of Israel’s sin and in need of Sabbath rest (2Chron.36:21; Jer. 12:4); Paul applies the same language to all creation aswell (Rom. 8:19–22).
Sinaffects every aspect of the individual: mind, heart, will, emotions,motives, actions, and nature (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Jer. 17:9; Rom.3:9–18). Sometimes this reality is referred to as “totaldepravity.” This phrase means not that people are as sinful asthey could be but rather that every aspect of their lives is taintedby sin. As a descendant of Adam, every person enters the world as asinner who then sins (Rom. 5:12–21). Sin also pollutes societalstructures, corrupting culture, governments, nations, and economicmarkets, to name but a few.
Consequences.Since the two greatest commandments are to love God and to love one’sneighbor as oneself (Matt. 22:34–40), it makes sense that sinhas consequences on both the vertical and the horizontal level.Vertically, sin results in both physical and spiritual death (Gen.2:16–17; Rom. 5:12–14). It renders humanity guilty inGod’s court of law, turns us into God’s enemies, andsubjects us to God’s righteous wrath (Rom. 1:18; 3:19–20;5:6–11). On the horizontal level, sin causes conflict betweenindividuals and harms relationships of every kind. It breedsmistrust, jealousy, and selfishness that infect even the closestrelationships.
Conclusion
Nosubject is more unpleasant than sin. But a proper understanding ofsin is essential for understanding the gospel of Jesus Christ. As thePuritan Thomas Watson put it, “Until sin be bitter, Christ willnot be sweet.”
Divination and magic were fairly common practices throughoutthe biblical period. Divination was especially prevalent in theancient Near East during the OT era, but many divination andmagic/sorcery practices continued into the NT era throughout theMediterranean region as well. Divination, which encompasses a widerange of magic-related practices, generally refers to varioustechniques used to communicate with supernatural entities such asgods and spirits in order to determine the future, ward off evil, orchange something for the better. Divination emphasizes obtaininginformation that would otherwise be unknown to humans. Magic andsorcery, on the other hand, while overlapping to some degree withdivination, use curses and spells to influence and affect people,often with the intention of harming one’s enemies, but also toenhance the fortunes of those issuing the spells. Thus, magic andsorcery generally emphasize influencing people or events throughsupernatural or occult means. However, often the practices overlapand are frequently carried out by the same person. Likewise,especially in the OT and throughout the ancient Near East during theOT era, the terminology for diviners, magicians, and sorcerers wasquite fluid and not precise or restrictive.
Thenonbiblical literary texts of Israel’s neighbors in the ancientNear East (especially Egypt, Assyria, and Babylonia) contain hundredsof references to various types of divination and magic. The mostcommon divination techniques involved (1)watching birds and thepatterns of their flight; (2)observing drops of oil spreadingacross the surface of water in a bucket; (3)astrology; and(4)removing and observing the entrails of animals, especiallythe liver. From observing these things, the skilled divinersupposedly could interpret the future and advise a king (or otherpatron) about what course to follow. Magic included the casting ofspells as well as the wearing of charms and amulets.
Thebook of Acts clearly indicates that magic and sorcery (and probablydivination) were still quite prevalent in the NT era. Peter confrontsa sorcerer, Simon, in Acts 8:9–24. In numerous earlynonbiblical Christian writings, there are references to this sameSimon as a powerful sorcerer who contended with Peter in variousways. Later in Acts, Paul and Barnabas encountered a Jewish sorcerer,Bar-Jesus, at the very beginning of their first missionary journey(Acts 13:6), perhaps indicating that this type of hostile power wasfairly prevalent in many of the places where the early church wastaking root. Likewise, in Acts 19:19, when the citizens of Ephesusresponded to the gospel in large numbers, “a number who hadpracticed sorcery brought their scrolls together and burned them,”indicating that sorcery was widespread in Ephesus.
Inthe OT, the practice of divination and numerous other kinds of magicand sorcery was strictly prohibited. Deuteronomy 18:9–14presents a list of prohibited practices (although the precisetranslation of the Hebrew terms in this text is difficult). There,divination and all other related pagan methods of seeing ordetermining the future are described as detestable. Likewise, a widerange of practices relating to sorcery, magic, and witchcraft areprohibited (casting spells, consulting with the dead, etc.). Incontrast, this passage is followed by a description of the proper wayto engage with the supernatural: through true biblical prophetschosen by God and speaking in his name (Deut. 18:17–22).
Likewise,in the NT, especially in the book of Acts, those who had the Spiritwere proved repeatedly to be infinitely more powerful than even themost famous of sorcerers and those who practiced witchcraft. Paulincludes “witchcraft” (Gk. pharmakeia, which probablyincludes sorcery and magic) in his list of “acts of the flesh”(Gal. 5:19–20). Finally, the book of Revelation pronouncesjudgment on those who practice magic arts and sorcery (9:21; 18:23;21:8; 22:15).
In the world of the Bible, a person was viewed as a unity ofbeing with the pervading breath and thus imprint of the loving andholy God. The divine-human relationship consequently is portrayed inthe Bible as predominantly spiritual in nature. God is spirit, andhumankind may communicate with him in the spiritual realm. Theancients believed in an invisible world of spirits that held most, ifnot all, reasons for natural events and human actions in the visibleworld.
OldTestament
TheOT writers used the common Hebrew word ruakh(“wind” or “breath”) to describe force andeven life from the God of the universe. In its most revealing firstinstance, God’s ruakh hovered above the waters of the uncreatedworld (Gen. 1:2). In the next chapter of Genesis a companion word,neshamah (“breath”) is used as God breathed into Adam’snostrils “the breath of life” (2:7). God thus breathedhis own image into the first human being. Humankind’s moralobligations in the remainder of the Bible rest on this breathing actof God.
TheOT authors often employ ruakh simply to denote air in motion orbreath from a person’s mouth. However, special instances of theuse of ruakh include references to the very life of a person (Gen.7:22; Ps. 104:29), an attitude or emotion (Gen. 41:8; Num. 14:24; Ps.77:3), the negative traits of pride or temper (Ps. 76:12), agenerally good disposition (Prov. 11:13; 18:14), the seat ofconversion (Ezek. 18:31; 36:26), and determination given by God(2Chron. 36:22; Hag. 1:14).
Onoccasion in the OT, spirits are labeled “evil” (Judg.9:23 ESV, NRSV, NASB). In the case of an evil spirit tormenting KingSaul, the spirit was identified as “from the Lord”(1Sam. 16:14–15, 23). According to the perspective of theancients, once a person was possessed by a divine spirit, departureof such a spirit meant possession by a different spirit (1Sam.16:14). Such a perspective was common in the ancient Near Eastern andMediterranean worlds and stemmed from the religious fervor of Semiticnomads.
NewTestament
TheNT authors used the Greek term pneumato convey the concept of spirit. In the world of the NT, the humanspirit was understood as the divine part of human reality as distinctfrom the material realm. The spirit appears conscious and capable ofrejoicing (Luke 1:47). Jesus was described by Luke as growing andbecoming “strong in spirit” (1:80). In “spirit”Jesus “knew” what certain teachers of the law werethinking in their hearts (Mark 2:8). Likewise, Jesus “wasdeeply moved in spirit and troubled” at the sickness of a lovedone (John 11:33). At the end of his life, Jesus gave up his spirit(John 19:30).
Accordingto Jesus, the spirit is the place of God’s new covenant work ofconversion and worship (John 3:5; 4:24). He declared the humanspirit’s dependence on God and ascribed great virtue to thosepeople who were “poor in spirit” (Matt. 5:3).
Humanbeings who were possessed by an evil spirit were devalued inMediterranean society. In various places in the Synoptic Gospels andthe book of Acts, either Jesus or the disciples were involved inexorcisms of such spirits (Matt. 8:28–33; Mark 1:21–28;7:24–30; 9:14–29; 5:1–20; 9:17–29; Luke8:26–33; 9:37–42; Acts 5:16).
Theapostle Paul pointed to the spirit as the seat of conversion (Rom.7:6; 1Cor. 5:5). He described believers as facing a strugglebetween flesh and spirit in regard to living a sanctified life (Rom.8:2–17; Gal. 5:16–17). A contradiction seems apparent inPauline thinking as he appears to embrace Greek dualisticunderstanding of body (flesh) and spirit while likewise commandingthat “spirit, soul and body be kept blameless” (1Thess.5:23). However, the Christian struggle between flesh and Spirit (theHoly Spirit) centers around the believer’s body being deadbecause of sin but the spirit being alive because of the crucifiedand resurrected Christ (Rom. 8:10). Believers therefore areencouraged to lead a holistic life, lived in the Spirit.
HolySpirit
God’sSpirit is described in the opening chapters of Genesis as partakingin creation. His Spirit likewise is seen throughout the OT as anagent in establishing God’s people as a nation and a people ofhis own. Leaders of Israel were chosen and possessed by the Spirit toassist in leading the people into God’s will (Deut. 34:9; Judg.6:34; 15:14; 1Sam. 11:6; 16:23). Typically, the moment theSpirit of God descended on a leader, miraculous fortitude, wisdom,and power resulted. The Spirit also provided whatever was needed forGod’s prophets—courage, inspiration, and miracles (Num.11:25; 1Sam. 10:10; Isa. 11:2; Ezek. 2:2; Dan. 4:8; Joel 2:28).The office of prophet included prophesying both in the king’scourt and among the people of the land. As the Spirit came on aprophet of God, the prophet would correct the king’s andothers’ behavior and at times foretell the future or theoutcome of possible decisions.
Inthe Synoptic Gospels, the Holy Spirit functions in much the same wayas in the OT. One such function appears in Luke’s birthnarrative when the angel answers Mary’s question as to how shemight conceive while a virgin (Luke 1:34): “The Holy Spiritwill come on you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you”(1:35). The Greek verb translated “will overshadow you”is used in the LXX to describe God’s protective nature (Pss.91:4; 140:7). Likewise, the coming of God’s Spirit presentedempowerment (Acts 1:8). Thus, Mary received both divine empowermentand protection. As the birth narrative continues, Luke records howother characters in the story, Elizabeth and Zechariah, were filledwith the Spirit when Mary came to visit while pregnant with Jesus andwhen John the Baptist, the forerunner of the Messiah, was born (1:41,67). The evangelists record the Spirit descending on Jesus at thetime of his baptism (Matt. 3:16; Mark 1:10; Luke 3:22; John 1:32–34)and describe him as full ofthe Spirit when he was led by theSpirit into the desert (Luke 4:1). Finally, in John’s Gospelthe Spirit is the promised comforter whom Jesus will give to hisfollowers. He will testify about Christ (John 15:26).
Inthe new covenant the Spirit-possession of the OT gave way tobelievers’ reception of the Spirit at conversion. In Acts theHoly Spirit is presented as instrumental in carrying out the missionof the church, providing power and signs as well as moving andmotivating missionaries. The apostle Paul attributes to the HolySpirit the function of imbuing believers and the church with anassortment of virtues (Gal. 5:22), gifts (Rom. 12:7–8; 1Cor.12:1–11), and ministers (Eph. 4:7–13). He uses the ideaof life in the Spirit as a point of contrast with life in the flesh.In John’s letters the Spirit is described as providingdiscernment of truth (1John 4:6). See also Holy Spirit.
Self-control involves the willingness to submit to theboundaries of nature, society, and family that God places in theworld to bring about order and harmony in relationships. Theself-restraint of an individual’s thoughts, words, and actionsreflects the ordered discipline of God’s creation (Gen. 1–3;8:22; Prov. 6:6–8). Discipline of the self is essential to livea productive life in community (Prov. 25:28).
“Self-control”is one of the terms that Luke uses to summarize Paul’s messageto Felix (Acts 24:25). God’s people must exercise self-control(1Thess. 5:6; 2Tim. 1:7; 2Pet. 1:6). Ultimately,self-control is a gift, a fruit that comes from being in submissionto God’s Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23).
The words “wrath” and “anger” areused in Bible translations for a variety of Hebrew and Greek wordsthat refer to the disposition of someone (including God) towardpersons (including oneself [Gen. 45:5]) or situations considered tobe seriously displeasing. There may be degrees of anger (Zech. 1:15),and it may be accompanied by other sentiments such as distress (Gen.45:5), hatred (Job 16:9), jealousy (Rom. 10:19), grief (Mark 3:5),and vengeance (Mic. 5:15).
Angermay be a proper response to sin or a sin-distorted world, as seen in,for example, Moses’ reaction to the golden calf (Exod. 32:19).Paul envisages an anger that does not necessarily involve sin (Eph.4:26). Jesus is said to display anger at the willful stubbornness ofhis contemporaries (Mark 3:5), and his response to the mourning forLazarus (John 11:33) might be rendered as “outrage,” ananger directed not so much at the mourners as at the ugliness ofdeath, the consequence of sin, and with thoughts, perhaps, of his ownimpending death necessitated by this fallen world.
Onthe other hand, a display of anger may be the result of distortedperceptions or values (Gen. 4:5–6). A tendency to anger inoneself needs to be kept in check (James 1:19) and in others needs tobe handled prudently (Prov. 15:1). Unchecked, anger may lead toviolence and murder (Gen. 49:6). In several NT lists anger isassociated with such other sinful behavior as quarreling, jealousy,selfishness, slander, malice, gossip, conceit, strife, idolatry,sorcery, and bitterness (2Cor. 12:20; Gal. 5:20; Eph. 4:31;Col. 3:8).
InPs. 76:10 NLT (cf. ESV, NASB, NRSV) God is said to cause human angerto bring him praise (but see NIV, NET, where it is God’s wrathagainst human beings that brings him praise). Perhaps an instance ofthis is seen in Rom. 13:4–5, where the wrath of the civilauthority serves to maintain justice under God.
Secondary Matches
The following suggestions occured because
Galatians 5:16-26
is mentioned in the definition.
OldTestament
Preconditionsto love. Accordingto the OT, three preconditions must exist for us to know what itmeans to love.
First,we have the capacity for relationships because we are made in thelikeness of a personal God. God created us to reciprocate love backto him, in a relationship of mutual love.
Second,the true meaning of love depends on a true understanding of God,whose love causes him to pursue human beings even though their heartshave turned away from him for other substitute “loves.”This second point assumes that human beings still love, but they doso in a way distorted by sin. Sin causes human beings to live theirlives as though God did not exist. However, God in his mercy haschosen to intervene through his redemptive acts in history andthrough revelatory speech in order to deliver people from theblindness and corruption of sin. His pursuit of his unfaithful sonsand daughters gives us a picture of what true love looks like.
Third,God’s pursuit of human beings in history was by means ofelection and the establishment of a covenant. God chose to makehimself known to a particular people, those who would descend fromAbraham. God called Abraham to leave his country and go to a newplace that he would inherit as a new homeland, where his descendantswould be blessed (Gen. 12:1–3; 15; 17). God’s promise toAbraham took the form of an everlasting covenant, by which heguaranteed that he would fulfill what he had promised. He would bethe God of Abraham’s descendants, and they would be his people.They would receive the land of Canaan as an inheritance (17:6–8).In response, Abraham’s descendants were to obey God’scovenant by circumcising their male children (17:9–14). Thiscovenant would depend not on human faithfulness but on God’sfaithfulness. God would redeem this people to be his own specialpeople.
Severalgenerations later, God addressed the people through Moses, tellingthem that he chose them for no other reason than that he loved them(Deut. 7:7–8). Through Moses, God freed the people from theirslavery in Egypt and gave them the law. The law told them how to liveholy lives in response to God. It also included the provisions foratonement through the sacrificial system. In short, loving Godinvolved obeying his statutes.
Lovein wisdom books.The OT wisdom books Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes give us furtherinsight into the meaning of love. Proverbs exhorts its readers,“Above all else, guard your heart, for everything you do flowsfrom it” (4:23). One’s affections are the gateway to theallegiances of one’s heart. Once one’s affections havebeen hijacked by sinful passions, allegiance to God is subjugated toanother “master.” To the degree that sin usurps thethrone of the heart, it will steer the course of one’s actions(i.e., one’s “path”).
Inthe book of Job, Satan is convinced that Job serves God only becauseGod blesses Job, so Satan challenges God to let him afflict Job.Satan insists that if God removes Job’s blessings, Job willcurse God to his face (1:10–12). When God agrees to remove thehedge of protection and allows Job to suffer, the depth of Job’slove for God is vindicated. Although perplexed that God would allowhim to endure such suffering, he endures without forsaking God. Jobloved the giver more than his gifts, so his love did not turn tohatred when the gifts of God were removed.
Inthe book of Ecclesiastes, Qoheleth (the Teacher) reflects honestly onthe many vain pursuits and unexplainable dissonances thatcharacterize life “under the sun.” Only faith-filled lovefor God can enable one to live each moment of life with joy insteadof striving to find meaning in “under the sun” pursuits.This love chooses to trust the inscrutable wisdom of God in the faceof life’s many enigmas, uncertainties, and sufferings. One cando this honestly because of the belief that God’s just ruleover the affairs of the universe will be vindicated at the future dayof judgment (Eccles. 12:14).
Marriagemetaphor.The Bible uses the metaphor of marriage to describe God’scovenant relationship with his people (Isa. 54:5–8). Thismetaphor captures the intimate character of the relationship that Goddesires to have with his people. Marriage is the most intimate humanrelationship in two ways. First, marriage is a relationship in whichknowledge is the most intimate. A spouse can see many of the flawsthat are hidden from others. Thus, each spouse must accept and lovethe other for who that person is, in spite of his or herimperfections. Second, the depth and passion of the expressions oflove are most intimate in marriage. Consequently, there is no greaterpain than that caused by unfaithfulness to this covenant.
Sadly,as the story of the OT unfolds, God’s “wife”betrays him. How so? His people worship idols in their hearts (Ezek.14:1–5). Because God is jealous for the exclusive love of hispeople, idolatry is spiritual unfaithfulness. God wants both theallegiance and the affection of their hearts to be reservedexclusively for him. The people continue the formalities of worship,but their hearts have turned away from God. The book of Hoseaillustrates the sense of betrayal that God feels when his people arespiritually unfaithful. God tells Hosea to marry a woman who will beunfaithful to him. Subsequently, she leaves Hosea for one lover afteranother. This story is intended to give God’s people a vividpicture of how painful their spiritual betrayal of him is. His heartis crushed by the rebellious and idolatrous condition of his people.Hosea’s wife ends up on the market as a prostitute, and Godtells him to buy her back and love her again.
NewTestament
Thestory of God’s love for his people is expanded by what theFather did centuries later when he sent Jesus to pay the ransom forthe sins of his people so that they might be healed of theirrebellion and receive eternal life (John 3:16; 17:24). The death andresurrection of Christ were necessary because sin had to be atonedfor. This love is a free gift that comes to the one who trusts inChrist for forgiveness of sin and a new heart. The new heart inclinesone to please God. The gift of the Spirit enables one to bear the“fruit” of love (Gal. 5:22–23). As Abraham’sengrafted children (Gal. 3:7), believers are called by God to live aspilgrims on their way to a heavenly promised land (Heb. 11:9–10;1Pet. 2:11).
Christmodeled genuine love by serving us (Mark 10:42–45). His loveshould motivate us and enable us to practice sacrificial servicetoward others (Matt. 22:39; 1John 3:16). It should also causeus to practice forbearance, long-suffering, and forgiveness towardthose who wrong us (Matt. 18:21–35). It should cause us torepay evil with good (Rom. 12:14). Our love for truth should motivateus to act in the best interests of others (1Cor. 13:4–8)in the hope that they may become reconciled to God (2Tim.2:24–26).
The spectrum of meaning of “faith” and “faithfulness” may be applied both to God and to human beings. Cognates of “faith” are used interpersonally in human relationships but are used in the Bible specifically to denote the interaction between God and humanity, and human response to God. A question of theological pertinence is the degree to which one must distinguish between faith as an agent of personal belief and faith as an object of personal belief as pertaining to the relationship between God and human being.
In Hebrew the words most often translated “faith” or “faithful” are ’emunah and ’emet. In Greek the word rendered most frequently “faith” or “faithful” is pistis. In terms of their semantic domains, ’emunah and ’emet connote an objective sense of reliability (of persons) and stability (of inanimate objects); pistis conveys more of a subjective sense of placing confidence in a person, trusting in a person, or believing in a person or set of propositions. This subjective sense of pistis is correlated to considering the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence as reliable—“faithful.” Pistis likewise is used to communicate the quality of this person or belief as “committed” and “trustworthy.”
As noted, to some degree the meanings of the Hebrew and Greek terms overlap. However, certain dissimilarities are apparent as well. These observations play out in OT and NT expressions of faith. Martin Buber (1878–1965), a Jewish philosopher known for his academic work in the area of “faith,” distinguished between two types of faith: OT/Judaic faith, typified as tribal, national, and communal trust and fidelity based on the covenant; and NT/Christian faith, characterized as individual persuasion or belief in something.
Old Testament
Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.
Faithfulness as an attribute of God. Yahweh is presented in the OT as faithful to his promises, as faithfulness is a part of his very being. In the Torah the Israelites are reminded, “The Lord your God is God; he is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love to a thousand generations of those who love him and keep his commandments” (Deut. 7:9). Not only is God presented as keeping his covenant, but also the prophet Hosea calls God “the faithful Holy One” (Hos. 11:12). Isaiah likewise pre-sents faithfulness as an attribute of God (Isa. 49:7). The people can rest assured, for God is unchanging and reliable.
The psalmist speaks of Yahweh as the faithful God: “You have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God” (Ps. 31:5 NRSV); “he remains faithful forever” (Ps. 146:6). The translation “faithful” is warranted in these instances in the psalms. Its connotations are “truth” and “trustworthiness.” Yahweh is ascribed divine honor by his people recognizing and acknowledging his faithfulness and trustworthiness, and by responding to it in obedience as the people of God.
The faith of Abraham. Abraham’s (Abram’s) faith is used in the Bible as an example (Rom. 4:12; Gal. 3:6–9) in the sense that Abraham trusted God’s faithfulness in a way unequaled by other characters in the OT. Abraham lived in Mesopotamia when God spoke to him in a vision and told him that his descendants would be as innumerable as the stars in the sky (Gen. 15:1–5). Abraham trusted that God would be faithful to keep his promise despite insurmountable obstacles. This trust was credited to Abraham as righteousness (15:6). God subsequently initiated a covenant with Abraham (15:7–21).
Abraham’s life was characterized by his obedience to God and by his considering God to be faithful, something well noted by the early church (Heb. 11:8–11, 17–19) and used as an example of faith in the Christian walk (12:1). The three best-known examples of Abraham’s obedience and hence trust in God’s faithfulness are found consecutively in the departure from his homeland, the birth of his son Isaac, and the offering of Isaac as a sacrifice.
When God said to Abraham, “Go from your country, your people and your father’s household to the land I will show you” (Gen. 12:1), Abraham went as commanded (12:4). He obeyed despite his cultural disposition toward staying in the area of his ancestry and kin, and he went without knowledge of an appointed destination. Elderly and childless (12:7, 11–12), Abraham considered offspring to be impossible. However, Abraham trusted that God would be able to raise offspring for him, believing that he would become a great nation (12:2). His offspring Isaac was later reminded of the obedience of Abraham (26:5). Abraham’s greatest challenge of trust in God’s faithful provision came when he was commanded to offer his son Isaac as a burnt offering (22:2). He was commended for fearing God without reservation (22:12).
When the priest and initial leader of the Maccabean revolt, Mattathias, gave his farewell speech to his sons as he faced death in 166 BC, he placed his deeds along the lines of biblical heroes of faith such as Abraham. With likely reference to Abraham offering Isaac, he said, “Was not Abraham found faithful when tested, and it was reckoned to him as righteousness?” (1Macc. 2:52 NRSV). The early church likewise used this test in Abraham’s life as an example of his faithfulness, while at the same time claiming that the source for this faithfulness was found in faith—faith in God’s faithful provision (Heb. 11:17).
Faithfulness to the covenant. Faithfulness embodies the very core of the covenant relationship. God seeks a love relationship with humanity expressed in initiating his covenant. He is described as “abounding in love and faithfulness” (Exod. 34:6). His covenant love (Heb. khesed) is closely correlated to his faithfulness: “He is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love” (Deut. 7:9). Throughout the OT, Yahweh is shown as loyal to his covenant. Yahweh’s righteousness is seen in his faithfulness in keeping the covenant even when his people were disloyal and did not acknowledge his faithfulness. He delivered his people out of Egypt because of his covenant love and righteousness, as the psalmist declared: “But from everlasting to everlasting the Lord’s love is with those who fear him, and his righteousness with their children’s children—with those who keep his covenant and remember to obey his precepts” (Ps. 103:17–18). He delivered them out of their subsequent exile, declaring them righteous because their repentant hearts trusted in his faithfulness and sought to obey his covenant. Yahweh said, “If I have not made my covenant with day and night and established the laws of heaven and earth, then I will reject the descendants of Jacob and David my servant and will not choose one of his sons to rule over the descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. For I will restore their fortunes and have compassion on them” (Jer. 33:25–26).
God’s people, however, were expected to reciprocate and trust his faithfulness (1Chron. 16:15–16). When God met with Moses on Mount Sinai, he instructed Moses to tell the Israelites to obey the commands fully and to keep the covenant. It was only then that they would be a treasured possession, a holy nation (Exod. 19:5–6). The Israelites were expected to follow in obedience and thus reciprocate God’s faithfulness. The people of Israel often failed, but David and other godly people chose to be faithful to God and walk in his truth (Ps. 119:30; Heb. 11:4–38).
Faith counted as righteousness. Whereas faith is used throughout the OT in reference to God’s faithfulness and loyalty, it is used in Hab. 2:4 as pertaining to the faith of the righteous: “But the righteous will live by his faith” (NASB). In Rom. 1:17 Paul specifies, “For in the gospel a righteousness from God is revealed, a righteousness that is by faith from first to last, just as it is written: ‘The righteous will live by faith.’ ” He notes that God’s righteousness, even as revealed within OT promises, is by faith (“faith to faith,” or “faith, through and through”). By the parameters “from faith to faith,” Paul intends to exclude works of righteousness, a theme that he carries consistently in the first four chapters of Romans. Justification, for Habakkuk’s hearers, meant faithfulness, a single-minded focus on Yahweh to meet life’s essential needs. For Paul, salvation by way of justification meant that reliance upon Christ alone was foundational. In Pauline theology, faith is a thread connecting the old covenant with the new covenant.
New Testament
Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.
In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:28–29).
In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).
Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (Eph. 2:8).
In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).
In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1Pet. 1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).
Faith is rarely addressed in the book of Revelation. Rather, faithfulness is the objective. Christ is described as the faithful and true witness (Rev. 1:5; 3:14), the perfect example for believers. One of the believers in Asia Minor, Antipas, is identified as Christ’s witness and faithful one (2:13). Those believers who, like Antipas, are faithful unto death, are called “overcomers” (2:10, 26). The faithless are thrown into the lake of fire, which represents the second death (21:8).
Faith and salvation. The role of faith in salvation is often hotly debated. Views are polarized between Christ as the object of faith and as the subject of faith. These views are designated as an objective genitive (faith in Christ), also known as an anthropological view, and a subjective genitive (the faithfulness of Christ), also known as a christological view. Thus, for example, Rom. 3:22 can be translated as “This righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe” (cf. NRSV) or as “This righteousness from God comes through the faithfulness of Jesus Christ for all who believe” (cf. NET). In the latter translation the faithfulness of Christ is seen as the agent of salvation.
In Eph. 2:8 the phrase “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith,” points to faith as instrumental in salvation. However, the source of that faith is not made clear. Does God provide the faith required to be saved, and thus the event is out of the hands of humanity? Or does salvation require a response from human beings in the form of faith—that is, trust?
In the Letter to the Romans, Paul indicates a correlation between grace and faith (Rom. 4:16; 5:1–2), and he shows that Abraham’s faith, his belief and unwavering hope in God’s faithfulness, was credited to him as righteousness (4:18–22). In the new covenant this righteousness likewise is credited to those who believe in God (4:23–24).
Faith and works. In Eph. 2:8–10 works are described as an outflow of the faith of believers: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God—not by works, so that no one can boast. For we are God’s handiwork, created in Christ Jesus to do good works, which God prepared in advance for us to do.”
Faith and works are also related in the letter of James, where works appear to be a prerequisite of faith, for faith without works is dead (2:26). While at first sight this might appear to contradict a Pauline understanding of faith and works (Rom. 3:19–5:1; Gal. 2:15–3:24), James and Paul use the word “works” differently. Paul uses it in terms of “obedience to the law,” something obsolete as a requirement in the new covenant. James, however, writes with regard to works of charity, not works of obedience to Jewish ritualistic law. Authentic faith, then, shows the evidence of good works—charity, the fruit of the Spirit.
Faith and the Church
Whereas baptism was a public initiation rite into the first-century Christian community, it was faith in Christ Jesus that was understood as establishing one’s membership in the family of God (Gal. 3:26). This membership was available to both Jews and Gentiles. Faith, the shared belief system in and confession of Jesus’ salvific work, became the common denominator in the Christian community. In Ephesians, faith is identified as one of the unifying elements of the church (Eph. 4:5). The prayer of faith heals the sick person in the church, another unifying element of applying faith (James 5:13–15).
Faith as a spiritual gift. According to the apostle Paul, the gift of faith is closely related to the life and functioning of the church (1Cor. 12:9). Mentioned among other gifts, or charismata (12:4), this aspect of faith is that benefit of salvation with which certain members of the church are graced and is used for the common good (12:7). This faith, then, is understood as edifying the Christian community at large rather than just the individual believer.
Faith and the Christian life. Christians are described as living by faith (2Cor. 5:7). Not only does faith lead people to Christ, but also Christ subsequently dwells in believers’ hearts through faith (Eph. 3:17). This Christian faith is subject to testing (James 1:2).
Faith is presented by Paul as present at different levels of growth among believers. Some Christians are weak in faith (Rom. 14:1), whereas others are strong in faith (15:1). Faith can differ in its strength of conviction (4:20–22; 14:5). It is presented as something that can grow (2Cor. 10:15).
Faith is grouped among gifts and virtues. Lifted out together with hope and love, faith is mentioned among gifts that edify believers in the church (1Cor. 13:13). Likewise, faith is mentioned as a Christian virtue among the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23).
The spectrum of meaning of “faith” and “faithfulness” may be applied both to God and to human beings. Cognates of “faith” are used interpersonally in human relationships but are used in the Bible specifically to denote the interaction between God and humanity, and human response to God. A question of theological pertinence is the degree to which one must distinguish between faith as an agent of personal belief and faith as an object of personal belief as pertaining to the relationship between God and human being.
In Hebrew the words most often translated “faith” or “faithful” are ’emunah and ’emet. In Greek the word rendered most frequently “faith” or “faithful” is pistis. In terms of their semantic domains, ’emunah and ’emet connote an objective sense of reliability (of persons) and stability (of inanimate objects); pistis conveys more of a subjective sense of placing confidence in a person, trusting in a person, or believing in a person or set of propositions. This subjective sense of pistis is correlated to considering the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence as reliable—“faithful.” Pistis likewise is used to communicate the quality of this person or belief as “committed” and “trustworthy.”
As noted, to some degree the meanings of the Hebrew and Greek terms overlap. However, certain dissimilarities are apparent as well. These observations play out in OT and NT expressions of faith. Martin Buber (1878–1965), a Jewish philosopher known for his academic work in the area of “faith,” distinguished between two types of faith: OT/Judaic faith, typified as tribal, national, and communal trust and fidelity based on the covenant; and NT/Christian faith, characterized as individual persuasion or belief in something.
Old Testament
Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.
Faithfulness as an attribute of God. Yahweh is presented in the OT as faithful to his promises, as faithfulness is a part of his very being. In the Torah the Israelites are reminded, “The Lord your God is God; he is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love to a thousand generations of those who love him and keep his commandments” (Deut. 7:9). Not only is God presented as keeping his covenant, but also the prophet Hosea calls God “the faithful Holy One” (Hos. 11:12). Isaiah likewise pre-sents faithfulness as an attribute of God (Isa. 49:7). The people can rest assured, for God is unchanging and reliable.
The psalmist speaks of Yahweh as the faithful God: “You have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God” (Ps. 31:5 NRSV); “he remains faithful forever” (Ps. 146:6). The translation “faithful” is warranted in these instances in the psalms. Its connotations are “truth” and “trustworthiness.” Yahweh is ascribed divine honor by his people recognizing and acknowledging his faithfulness and trustworthiness, and by responding to it in obedience as the people of God.
The faith of Abraham. Abraham’s (Abram’s) faith is used in the Bible as an example (Rom. 4:12; Gal. 3:6–9) in the sense that Abraham trusted God’s faithfulness in a way unequaled by other characters in the OT. Abraham lived in Mesopotamia when God spoke to him in a vision and told him that his descendants would be as innumerable as the stars in the sky (Gen. 15:1–5). Abraham trusted that God would be faithful to keep his promise despite insurmountable obstacles. This trust was credited to Abraham as righteousness (15:6). God subsequently initiated a covenant with Abraham (15:7–21).
Abraham’s life was characterized by his obedience to God and by his considering God to be faithful, something well noted by the early church (Heb. 11:8–11, 17–19) and used as an example of faith in the Christian walk (12:1). The three best-known examples of Abraham’s obedience and hence trust in God’s faithfulness are found consecutively in the departure from his homeland, the birth of his son Isaac, and the offering of Isaac as a sacrifice.
When God said to Abraham, “Go from your country, your people and your father’s household to the land I will show you” (Gen. 12:1), Abraham went as commanded (12:4). He obeyed despite his cultural disposition toward staying in the area of his ancestry and kin, and he went without knowledge of an appointed destination. Elderly and childless (12:7, 11–12), Abraham considered offspring to be impossible. However, Abraham trusted that God would be able to raise offspring for him, believing that he would become a great nation (12:2). His offspring Isaac was later reminded of the obedience of Abraham (26:5). Abraham’s greatest challenge of trust in God’s faithful provision came when he was commanded to offer his son Isaac as a burnt offering (22:2). He was commended for fearing God without reservation (22:12).
When the priest and initial leader of the Maccabean revolt, Mattathias, gave his farewell speech to his sons as he faced death in 166 BC, he placed his deeds along the lines of biblical heroes of faith such as Abraham. With likely reference to Abraham offering Isaac, he said, “Was not Abraham found faithful when tested, and it was reckoned to him as righteousness?” (1Macc. 2:52 NRSV). The early church likewise used this test in Abraham’s life as an example of his faithfulness, while at the same time claiming that the source for this faithfulness was found in faith—faith in God’s faithful provision (Heb. 11:17).
Faithfulness to the covenant. Faithfulness embodies the very core of the covenant relationship. God seeks a love relationship with humanity expressed in initiating his covenant. He is described as “abounding in love and faithfulness” (Exod. 34:6). His covenant love (Heb. khesed) is closely correlated to his faithfulness: “He is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love” (Deut. 7:9). Throughout the OT, Yahweh is shown as loyal to his covenant. Yahweh’s righteousness is seen in his faithfulness in keeping the covenant even when his people were disloyal and did not acknowledge his faithfulness. He delivered his people out of Egypt because of his covenant love and righteousness, as the psalmist declared: “But from everlasting to everlasting the Lord’s love is with those who fear him, and his righteousness with their children’s children—with those who keep his covenant and remember to obey his precepts” (Ps. 103:17–18). He delivered them out of their subsequent exile, declaring them righteous because their repentant hearts trusted in his faithfulness and sought to obey his covenant. Yahweh said, “If I have not made my covenant with day and night and established the laws of heaven and earth, then I will reject the descendants of Jacob and David my servant and will not choose one of his sons to rule over the descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. For I will restore their fortunes and have compassion on them” (Jer. 33:25–26).
God’s people, however, were expected to reciprocate and trust his faithfulness (1Chron. 16:15–16). When God met with Moses on Mount Sinai, he instructed Moses to tell the Israelites to obey the commands fully and to keep the covenant. It was only then that they would be a treasured possession, a holy nation (Exod. 19:5–6). The Israelites were expected to follow in obedience and thus reciprocate God’s faithfulness. The people of Israel often failed, but David and other godly people chose to be faithful to God and walk in his truth (Ps. 119:30; Heb. 11:4–38).
Faith counted as righteousness. Whereas faith is used throughout the OT in reference to God’s faithfulness and loyalty, it is used in Hab. 2:4 as pertaining to the faith of the righteous: “But the righteous will live by his faith” (NASB). In Rom. 1:17 Paul specifies, “For in the gospel a righteousness from God is revealed, a righteousness that is by faith from first to last, just as it is written: ‘The righteous will live by faith.’ ” He notes that God’s righteousness, even as revealed within OT promises, is by faith (“faith to faith,” or “faith, through and through”). By the parameters “from faith to faith,” Paul intends to exclude works of righteousness, a theme that he carries consistently in the first four chapters of Romans. Justification, for Habakkuk’s hearers, meant faithfulness, a single-minded focus on Yahweh to meet life’s essential needs. For Paul, salvation by way of justification meant that reliance upon Christ alone was foundational. In Pauline theology, faith is a thread connecting the old covenant with the new covenant.
New Testament
Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.
In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:28–29).
In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).
Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (Eph. 2:8).
In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).
In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1Pet. 1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).
Faith is rarely addressed in the book of Revelation. Rather, faithfulness is the objective. Christ is described as the faithful and true witness (Rev. 1:5; 3:14), the perfect example for believers. One of the believers in Asia Minor, Antipas, is identified as Christ’s witness and faithful one (2:13). Those believers who, like Antipas, are faithful unto death, are called “overcomers” (2:10, 26). The faithless are thrown into the lake of fire, which represents the second death (21:8).
Faith and salvation. The role of faith in salvation is often hotly debated. Views are polarized between Christ as the object of faith and as the subject of faith. These views are designated as an objective genitive (faith in Christ), also known as an anthropological view, and a subjective genitive (the faithfulness of Christ), also known as a christological view. Thus, for example, Rom. 3:22 can be translated as “This righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe” (cf. NRSV) or as “This righteousness from God comes through the faithfulness of Jesus Christ for all who believe” (cf. NET). In the latter translation the faithfulness of Christ is seen as the agent of salvation.
In Eph. 2:8 the phrase “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith,” points to faith as instrumental in salvation. However, the source of that faith is not made clear. Does God provide the faith required to be saved, and thus the event is out of the hands of humanity? Or does salvation require a response from human beings in the form of faith—that is, trust?
In the Letter to the Romans, Paul indicates a correlation between grace and faith (Rom. 4:16; 5:1–2), and he shows that Abraham’s faith, his belief and unwavering hope in God’s faithfulness, was credited to him as righteousness (4:18–22). In the new covenant this righteousness likewise is credited to those who believe in God (4:23–24).
Faith and works. In Eph. 2:8–10 works are described as an outflow of the faith of believers: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God—not by works, so that no one can boast. For we are God’s handiwork, created in Christ Jesus to do good works, which God prepared in advance for us to do.”
Faith and works are also related in the letter of James, where works appear to be a prerequisite of faith, for faith without works is dead (2:26). While at first sight this might appear to contradict a Pauline understanding of faith and works (Rom. 3:19–5:1; Gal. 2:15–3:24), James and Paul use the word “works” differently. Paul uses it in terms of “obedience to the law,” something obsolete as a requirement in the new covenant. James, however, writes with regard to works of charity, not works of obedience to Jewish ritualistic law. Authentic faith, then, shows the evidence of good works—charity, the fruit of the Spirit.
Faith and the Church
Whereas baptism was a public initiation rite into the first-century Christian community, it was faith in Christ Jesus that was understood as establishing one’s membership in the family of God (Gal. 3:26). This membership was available to both Jews and Gentiles. Faith, the shared belief system in and confession of Jesus’ salvific work, became the common denominator in the Christian community. In Ephesians, faith is identified as one of the unifying elements of the church (Eph. 4:5). The prayer of faith heals the sick person in the church, another unifying element of applying faith (James 5:13–15).
Faith as a spiritual gift. According to the apostle Paul, the gift of faith is closely related to the life and functioning of the church (1Cor. 12:9). Mentioned among other gifts, or charismata (12:4), this aspect of faith is that benefit of salvation with which certain members of the church are graced and is used for the common good (12:7). This faith, then, is understood as edifying the Christian community at large rather than just the individual believer.
Faith and the Christian life. Christians are described as living by faith (2Cor. 5:7). Not only does faith lead people to Christ, but also Christ subsequently dwells in believers’ hearts through faith (Eph. 3:17). This Christian faith is subject to testing (James 1:2).
Faith is presented by Paul as present at different levels of growth among believers. Some Christians are weak in faith (Rom. 14:1), whereas others are strong in faith (15:1). Faith can differ in its strength of conviction (4:20–22; 14:5). It is presented as something that can grow (2Cor. 10:15).
Faith is grouped among gifts and virtues. Lifted out together with hope and love, faith is mentioned among gifts that edify believers in the church (1Cor. 13:13). Likewise, faith is mentioned as a Christian virtue among the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23).
The evidence is clear that the books of Ezra and Nehemiah originally formed a single book. It is not until the Middle Ages that manuscripts show a division between the two. Furthermore, the material in Neh. 8 (and perhaps also chaps. 9–10) is a continuation of the material that follows the story of Ezra begun in Ezra 7–10. Thus, some of the discussion that follows is also relevant for the book of Nehemiah.
The book of Ezra is named after Ezra, a self-described priest and teacher (7:11) of the Lord. This man was commissioned by the Persian king Artaxerxes I (r. 464–424 BC) to reestablish the law of the Lord in the land of Judah.
Author and Date
The issue of the author and date of Ezra must include the evidence of Nehemiah, since they were originally a single composition. These books are unique among the theological histories of the OT in that they contain large portions that are written in the form of memoirs, first-person accounts of people who participated in the events that are narrated. Ezra, for instance, speaks in the first person in parts of Ezra 7–10. However, the memoir is set within the framework of a form more typical to the histories of the OT: third-person omniscient narration. So, although traditionally the authorship of Ezra is associated with Ezra, there is no claim that the book as a whole was written by him; thus, this book, like so many of the histories of Israel, is anonymous.
As for the date of composition, we need to differentiate the memoirs, which come from the time of Ezra (his ministry begins in 458 BC) and the time of Nehemiah (his work begins in 445 BC), and the time of the third-person narrative that incorporates these memoirs. The latter contains no date, but none of the events narrated took place after around 400 BC, and perhaps the final composition of the book took place around this time and no later than 300BC.
Genre and Structure
The book of Ezra is a theological history, a book that intends to communicate what actually happened in space and time but is selective, with the purpose of showing how God was working among the people of God in the postexilic period. As a theological history in the OT, however, Ezra and Nehemiah are unique in that they contain the memoirs of Ezra and Nehemiah (as detailed by the first outline below). The structure of the book of Ezra makes sense only when paired with Nehemiah, since, again, they were an original unity. The structure may be explained on the basis of its sources as follows:
I. A Historical Review (Ezra 1–6)
II. Ezra’s Memoirs, Part 1 (Ezra 7–10)
III. Nehemiah’s Memoirs, Part 1 (Neh. 1–7)
IV. Ezra’s Memoirs, Part 2 (Neh. 8–10)
V. Nehemiah’s Memoirs, Part 2 (Neh. 11–13)
Or on the basis of the contents as follows:
I. Zerubbabel and Sheshbazzar Lead the People in Rebuilding the Temple (Ezra 1–6)
II. Ezra Leads the People by Reestablishing the Law (Ezra 7–10)
III. Nehemiah Leads the People in Rebuilding the Wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 1:1–7:3)
IV. Renewal, Celebration, Remaining Problems (Neh. 7:4–13:31)
Theological Message
The book of Ezra begins where Chronicles ends, with the decree by King Cyrus of Persia that the Jews be allowed to return to the land. The first six chapters narrate the events of the first phase of that return, from 539 until 515 BC. Zerubbabel and Sheshbazzar are the leaders of the people at this time, and their initial goal is to rebuild the temple. Once they start, however, opposition sets in, and the work stops. However, motivated in large part, as we know, by the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, the people finish the work, and the second temple becomes functional.
Nonetheless, over fifty years later, when the story of Ezra begins (Ezra 7–10), the condition of the people of God is not promising. King Artaxerxes of Persia allows Ezra, a priest and teacher, to lead a return back to Judah with the express purpose of reestablishing the law in the land. When he arrives, he finds that there are sinful practices such as illegitimate intermarriage between Jews and Gentiles, and he works to reestablish the purity of the people. The story of Ezra continues in the book of Nehemiah, where he is seen leading the people in a great renewal of the covenant as they reaffirm their commitment to obey God’s law (Neh. 8–10).
Contemporary Significance
The book of Ezra narrates two periods of return to the promised land from exile with two different primary purposes. The first group, led by Zerubbabel and Sheshbazzar, has as its main purpose the rebuilding of the temple. The primacy of the temple building is an indication of the importance of worship. The second group returns under the leadership of Ezra, whose purpose is to reestablish the observance of the law among God’s people. God’s word plays a central role in Ezra’s reform, and reading about his ancient ministry reminds God’s people today of the importance of Scripture.
Ezra’s style of leadership also provides a model for contemporary leadership. Ezra is sensitive and empathetic. He takes the shortcomings and failures of God’s people on himself. When the people sin, he tears out his own hair and sheds tears of disappointment. That this is not the only possible style of leadership is seen in the next book as we observe Nehemiah at work.
The work of Zerubbabel and Ezra (as well as Nehemiah) also illustrates that at times separation from pagan influences is necessary. Granted, Jesus breaks down the barrier between Jews and Gentiles (Gal. 3:28), but his followers should be distinguished by their new life in him (Gal. 4:8–11; 5:16–26).
The KJV translation of certain Greek constructions referringto “flesh.” Most contemporary English versions prefer “ofthe flesh,” “earthly,” “worldly,” andeven “sinful.” Occasionally “carnal” simplyrefers to physical or material things (e.g., Rom. 15:27; 1 Cor.9:11) or to certain aspects of the OT that have been fulfilled inChrist (Heb. 7:16; 9:10). The notion occurs most frequently in thewritings of Paul, who makes special use of “carnal” tocontrast it with “spiritual.” In Rom. 8:1–11 Paulpresents the carnal or worldly person as “Spirit-less”and therefore “Christ-less.” By definition, a Christianis spiritual and cannot be carnal (“live according to thesinful nature” [8:4]). That is, those who have Christnecessarily have the Holy Spirit, and therefore they do not followthe pattern of the world, but rather walk by the Spirit and producespiritual fruit (Gal. 5:16–26).
Inother contexts the same apostle can describe Christians as “carnal”(KJV) or “worldly” (NIV). “Brothers, I could notaddress you as spiritual but as worldly—mere infants inChrist. . . . For since there is jealousy andquarreling among you, are you not worldly?” (1 Cor.3:1–3). Here Paul rebukes the Corinthian Christians for theirimmaturity. The Spirit has sanctified them (6:11), but in theirsinful pride and divisiveness they appear to belong to the world, theevil age of sin and death. They must “grow up” so thattheir conduct befits the Spirit, who now dwells in them.
AlthoughPaul’s two uses of “carnal” seem opposed to eachother, he is simply calling his Corinthian readers to liveconsistently with the truths that he expounded in Romans. Christiansare fundamentally not carnal, but spiritual. They should thereforeact like it in a life marked by faith, hope, and especially love(1 Cor. 13). These are the true signs that someone has the HolySpirit, even though the Christian may lapse into attitudes andbehaviors inconsistent with this new identity in Christ.
Carnelian–Aprecious red stone. It is one of the jewels in the high priest’sbreastpiece (Exod. 28:17; 39:10), as well as in the “covering”(similar to the high priest’s breastpiece) for the king ofTyre, who is portrayed as a priest serving in the temple garden ofEden (Ezek. 28:13 NRSV). In the book of Revelation, God, who sits onthe throne, has the appearance of carnelian (4:2–3), andcarnelian is one of the precious stones in the walls of the newJerusalem (21:20).
Divination and magic were fairly common practices throughoutthe biblical period. Divination was especially prevalent in theancient Near East during the OT era, but many divination andmagic/sorcery practices continued into the NT era throughout theMediterranean region as well. Divination, which encompasses a widerange of magic-related practices, generally refers to varioustechniques used to communicate with supernatural entities such asgods and spirits in order to determine the future, ward off evil, orchange something for the better. Divination emphasizes obtaininginformation that would otherwise be unknown to humans. Magic andsorcery, on the other hand, while overlapping to some degree withdivination, use curses and spells to influence and affect people,often with the intention of harming one’s enemies, but also toenhance the fortunes of those issuing the spells. Thus, magic andsorcery generally emphasize influencing people or events throughsupernatural or occult means. However, often the practices overlapand are frequently carried out by the same person. Likewise,especially in the OT and throughout the ancient Near East during theOT era, the terminology for diviners, magicians, and sorcerers wasquite fluid and not precise or restrictive.
Thenonbiblical literary texts of Israel’s neighbors in the ancientNear East (especially Egypt, Assyria, and Babylonia) contain hundredsof references to various types of divination and magic. The mostcommon divination techniques involved (1)watching birds and thepatterns of their flight; (2)observing drops of oil spreadingacross the surface of water in a bucket; (3)astrology; and(4)removing and observing the entrails of animals, especiallythe liver. From observing these things, the skilled divinersupposedly could interpret the future and advise a king (or otherpatron) about what course to follow. Magic included the casting ofspells as well as the wearing of charms and amulets.
Thebook of Acts clearly indicates that magic and sorcery (and probablydivination) were still quite prevalent in the NT era. Peter confrontsa sorcerer, Simon, in Acts 8:9–24. In numerous earlynonbiblical Christian writings, there are references to this sameSimon as a powerful sorcerer who contended with Peter in variousways. Later in Acts, Paul and Barnabas encountered a Jewish sorcerer,Bar-Jesus, at the very beginning of their first missionary journey(Acts 13:6), perhaps indicating that this type of hostile power wasfairly prevalent in many of the places where the early church wastaking root. Likewise, in Acts 19:19, when the citizens of Ephesusresponded to the gospel in large numbers, “a number who hadpracticed sorcery brought their scrolls together and burned them,”indicating that sorcery was widespread in Ephesus.
Inthe OT, the practice of divination and numerous other kinds of magicand sorcery was strictly prohibited. Deuteronomy 18:9–14presents a list of prohibited practices (although the precisetranslation of the Hebrew terms in this text is difficult). There,divination and all other related pagan methods of seeing ordetermining the future are described as detestable. Likewise, a widerange of practices relating to sorcery, magic, and witchcraft areprohibited (casting spells, consulting with the dead, etc.). Incontrast, this passage is followed by a description of the proper wayto engage with the supernatural: through true biblical prophetschosen by God and speaking in his name (Deut. 18:17–22).
Likewise,in the NT, especially in the book of Acts, those who had the Spiritwere proved repeatedly to be infinitely more powerful than even themost famous of sorcerers and those who practiced witchcraft. Paulincludes “witchcraft” (Gk. pharmakeia, which probablyincludes sorcery and magic) in his list of “acts of the flesh”(Gal. 5:19–20). Finally, the book of Revelation pronouncesjudgment on those who practice magic arts and sorcery (9:21; 18:23;21:8; 22:15).
Any substance that, after being absorbed by the body, altersits normal function. The most common drug in the Bible is alcohol,particularly wine, which replaces the sugar in grape juice duringfermentation. Noah drinks wine, becomes intoxicated, and actsshamefully by exposing his nakedness (Gen. 9:21). The Bibleunequivocally condemns drunkenness (e.g., Eph. 5:18) but not themoderate consumption of alcohol (Ps. 104:15; Eccles. 10:19; Isa.25:6). Physicians used drugs medicinally, apparently without sanctionor stigma. In the first century, Dioscorides wrote a treatise ondrugs, De materia medica, which became a standard of botanicalknowledge for well over a millennium. Medicine often was derived fromnatural herbs and roots (synthetic drugs were not available untilfurther gains in chemistry). The author of Sirach praises the work ofphysicians and allows the use of medicines because they are part ofGod’s creation (38:1–15). Paul encourages Timothy todrink a little wine for his ailments (1Tim. 5:23), and heappreciated the services of Luke, whom he calls the “belovedphysician” (Col. 4:14 KJV, RSV). But the Bible also condemnssorcery and magic (Gal. 5:20), which often appropriated drugs tomanipulate the divine. Sorcerers carried drugs around in bottles(Herm. 17:7). The line between healing and manipulation could beblurred, as with the Roman use of an abortion pill (Juvenal, Sat.595–596).
Eternal life usually is mentioned in reference to human life, where it means unending life in the body, free from death. The expression, though most common in the NT, is drawn from the OT. The book of Daniel says that many who “sleep in the dust of the earth will awake: some to everlasting life, others to shame and everlasting contempt” (12:2). This yearning for eternal life is also expressed in Genesis, where those who eat of the “tree of life” will “live forever” (3:22). In Deuteronomy, God likewise declares, “I live forever” (32:40). Among the DSS, 4Q418 (frag. 69) and 1QS (4:7), both of which predate the NT, also refer to everlasting life.
The NT expression “eternal life” may seem to have a different meaning than the OT expression “everlasting life.” Any such appearance arises only in translation to English, for the underlying Greek words in the NT have the same meaning as the underlying Hebrew words in the OT. The words are already treated synonymously by the LXX, an ancient translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek (predating the NT).
The English word “eternal” may refer to eternity past and future, but in biblical usage that word does not generally refer to eternity past. This is evident where the NT mentions “eternal fire” (Matt. 18:8) and “eternal punishment” (Matt. 25:46). It is also indicated where eternal life is seen as a future reward for the righteous (Dan. 12:2; Luke 18:30; Rom. 2:7; Gal. 6:8; Titus 1:2; 1John 2:25).
That life in the body is included in the NT concept of eternal life is evident from several considerations. Jesus says of everyone who believes in him, “I will raise them up at the last day” (John 6:40). The bodily nature of everlasting life is indicated by Jesus’ own resurrection, for his tomb was left empty. Jesus says after his own resurrection that a spirit “does not have flesh and bones, as you see I have” (Luke 24:39). The apostle Paul even writes that without the resurrection the Christian faith is invalidated (1Cor. 15:12–19). When Paul says that “flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God,” he does not mean that resurrection is of the human spirit, but rather that perishable flesh and blood must first be made immortal (1Cor. 15:50–54; 2Cor. 5:4).
The prospect of eternal life is often contrasted with death and punishment, just as the Bible more generally contrasts the prospect of life with death and lawless behavior. In Gen. 3, the sin of Adam and Eve shows that people turn from God out of self-interest, so everlasting life is not given to them. Much later, the people of Israel are warned that they will suffer death if they break faith with the true God to follow other gods (Lev. 26; Deut. 28; 30:15–20). Later still, the book of Daniel warns plainly that resurrection is to everlasting life or to everlasting contempt (12:1–3). The NT likewise, drawing at times from the Hebrew prophets (e.g., Isa. 66:22–24), contrasts the prospect of eternal life with the prospect of punishment for doing evil (Matt. 25:31–46; John 5:28–29; Rom.6:23; Gal.6:8; Rev.20:10–15; 22:1–6).
Just as eternal life is contrasted with death, eternal life is sometimes referred to more fundamentally and simply as “life” (e.g., Matt. 19:17; Acts 11:18; 1John 3:14). All life comes from God, through his divine word (Gen. 1; Deut. 30:20; John 1:1–4). The NT says that God gave his Son the power to give eternal life, since the Son does only what God the Father commands (John 5:19–30; 6:57–58).
The NT promises eternal life to all who believe (trust) in God’s Son (John 3:16; 3:36; 6:40; 11:25–26; 20:31; 1John 5:13). To believe in God’s Son is to believe that God sent Jesus (John 17:8), to listen to Jesus’ message from God and so believe in God (5:24; 12:44), and to believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Messiah (20:31).
The belief in God and Jesus that secures eternal life is not mere mental assent, but rather is expressed in a life that turns from evil. Those who will receive eternal life are characterized by love rather than by hatred and murder (John 5:29; 1John 3:14–15). Only the righteous will enter into eternal life, and they are marked by their care for Jesus’ brothers and sisters: feeding the hungry and clothing the poor (Matt. 25:31–46). They do not live for themselves, nor do they give free rein to all human desires, but instead they are led by, and walk in accordance with, the Spirit of God (John 12:25; Gal. 5:16–21; 6:8).
The Bible contains two kinds of statements related to properconduct. Some of them describe the nature of God, the sort of worldhe created, and what he has done for particular groups of people. Italso contains statements telling us what we ought to do, both ascreatures of this God and, in some instances, as the uniquebeneficiaries of his redemptive activity. Consequently, the Biblesets forth a moral viewpoint or ethical system, supported by reasonsthat justify its content and urgency. The writers of Scripture werenot moral philosophers, outlining their position in technical detail;nevertheless, they intended to reveal what pleases our God andSavior, so that the saints are “thoroughly equipped for everygood work” (2Tim. 3:16–17). The Bible, therefore,is the foundational resource for moral discernment, the definitivestatement of what Christians must do and who they must become.
TheSources of Moral Knowledge
Scriptureidentifies two sources of moral knowledge. First, all human beingshave the law of God “written on their hearts” (Rom.2:15). We have a conscience, a God-given awareness of right and wrongthat acquits or convicts us, depending on how we respond to it. Thefall of humankind has damaged this source of knowledge, and ourconsciences can become “seared” through chronicdisobedience and doctrinal treason (1Tim. 4:2). We do not,therefore, see infallibly what our duties are. Nevertheless, theapostle Paul argues that every human being knows enough of God’slaw—and indeed, enough about his nature as God—toeliminate every defense on judgment day (Rom. 1:18–20). No onewill be able to say to God in that hour, “I had no idea who youwere and no hint of what you expected ofme.”
Second,as noted above, we have the Bible as a source of knowledge, this onebeing fully adequate and sufficiently clear to guide our choices.Knowing Scripture is necessary for Christian ethics because it offersa high-definition view of what conscience can (even in its bestmoments) scarcely grasp. The Bible proclaims not only what the churchmust do, often in straightforward, concrete terms, but also (atleast, in many cases) why God’s will has its particular contentand why obedience is an emergency, not a safely deferred, improvementproject. The Bible does not, and really could not, answer everyethical question put to it in unambiguous detail. New technologiesand cultural shifts have created dilemmas unimagined in the firstcentury or any previous age. But the church can be assured that afaithful reading of and response to Scripture will, by the grace ofGod, please him even today, whatever our particular circ*mstances.
TheLogic of Biblical Morality
Themoral teaching of Scripture has an identifiable structure consistingof duties and final objectives. When we obey God’scommandments, which is our duty, his ultimate goals or objectives increating us are realized. In this sense, biblical morality iscomplete and informative compared to systems derived from otherworldviews. It explains what life is all about, but also what we mustdo from day to day. This entire picture emerges from Scripturebecause its theological statements are always practically applied andnever presented with merely theoretical interest.
Theobjectives of biblical morality.The objectives of an ethical system are its final ends or purposes:the results that obedience is supposed to yield. In the Bible, twoobjectives have this ultimate significance, one being the anticipatedside effect of the other.
Toglorify God.The biblical writers proclaim the spectacular goodness of God. He ismaximally excellent in all ways as the Creator, including wisdom,power, justice, and love. He is the holy God who, almost in spite ofthat fact, loves us and gave his Son, Jesus, to suffer for our sinsso that we might live eternally in his presence. In these respects,God stands alone, not simply in experience but necessarily so. No oneever has, and no one ever could, be like him. Thus, the finalobjective of all human striving must be to glorify this God—toknow him, to praise him, and to value what he values. Our actionsmust testify to his excellence, honoring him and encouraging othersto do likewise. Obedience treasures what God treasures, shuns what heabhors, and allows his power to work in our lives, causing us to livein unity with our fellow believers. These patterns of behavior definewhat it means to glorify God.
Tobe happy in God’s presence.The second goal or objective of biblical morality is to be happy inways that are proper for God’s creatures. In this sense, theChristian system of ethics differs from moral theories that eitherreject happiness altogether, viewing it as an unworthy goal, or elsereduce it to a merely practical necessity—that is, we sinnersneed our incentives. On the contrary, the God of Scripture plainlydesires our happiness and often presents himself as the final sourceof it when calling his people to obedience. This tendency followsfrom the perfect goodness of God and his freedom in creating allthings. He did not have to make anything else, but he did so; andbecause he has no needs, his purposes must have been selfless ratherthan selfish. He created in order to give rather than to get, and thevery best he desires for any of us is the happiness that results fromour glorifying him together, as one body in Christ. Likewise, then,biblical morality differs from ethical systems that make humanhappiness an intrinsic good, so that any means to it is acceptable.God wants us to be happy, but our happiness must come from bringinghim glory. All other forms of happiness are deceptive and transitory.The heavenly scenes of the book of Revelation show the church whathappiness God has in store for them if they overcome the trials ofthis life (so, e.g., Rev. 4–5; 7; 21–22; cf. 1Cor.2:9; Heb. 12:2).
Themeans of biblical morality.Not surprisingly, the Bible also shows us how to glorify God—howto reflect his majesty in our daily lives, how to praise him, and howto value what he values. Within the whole of this teaching, severalmajor themes can be discerned, five leading examples of which appearbelow, allowing some overlap between them.
Trustingin God’s promises.Biblical faith is the confidence that God will do for us what he haspromised. We believe that he can and will meet our needs and notallow us to endure pointless suffering. When we trust him, weproclaim his greatness and acknowledge our own dependence upon him.Both Rom. 4 and Heb. 11 make this point in ways that reflect upon OThistory with an application to the present Christian life. The gospelis a promise concerning the death, burial, and resurrection ofChrist; and faith assures us that God will reckon these events to ouraccount. Conversely, we often violate God’s commandmentsbecause we doubt that he will give us what we need when we need it(so, e.g., Abraham’s capitulation to Sarah in Gen. 16, with itscorresponding negative results).
Keepingholiness and impurity separated.God is the all-powerful, all-knowing, morally perfect Creator of theuniverse. All things depend on him for their existence, and he isextreme both in his commitment to justice and his desire to love.Consequently, God’s creatures encounter him as “holy,”as the ominously transcendent or dangerously perfect deity. He standsalone, apart from everything else, and life in his presence cannotentail business as usual. The shorthand way of expressing this dutyis to say that we ourselves must be holy, as he is holy, by shunningall forms of impurity. In this way, for example, the ancientIsraelites prepared themselves to enter Yahweh’s presence andgave him public honor (Lev. 11:44; 19:2; Ps. 24:3–4; Isa.6:1–5; cf. 1Pet. 1:15–16).
InScripture, the distinction between the pure and the impure, or theholy and the unholy, is sometimes intrinsic and sometimespedagogical. Breaking any of the Ten Commandments makes oneintrinsically impure. It is always evil, everywhere, for anyone tohave other gods, make idols, and disrespect parents. It is evil tolie, steal, and murder. Even breaking the Sabbath is wrong if itexpresses unbelief in God’s ability and willingness to provide.But some lines between purity and impurity—or, in other cases,just between the sacred and the common—seem to be drawn by Godfor instructional purposes only. They do not separate good from evilas such, but they compel the Israelites to “practice Yahweh’spresence” by honoring boundaries imposed on domestic life. Itis not evil to eat pork, but doing that is forbidden in the OT andpermitted in the NT (Lev. 11:7; Mark 7:19). It is not evil to wearblended cloth, but doing that is forbidden in the OT and passed overin the NT (Lev. 19:19). Therefore, as suggested, Levitical rules ofthis kind must have had some instrumental purpose, serving anobjective beyond themselves. They impose the holiness of Yahweh oneveryday choices, as the Holy Spirit now presses the claims of Godupon his church. This separation of impurity and holiness is, in anycase, a constant theme in the OT, and it carries over into the NT aswell, where it informs the question “What must I do to besaved?” (cf. Acts 16:30).
ImitatingGod/Christ.The biblical writers also construe the moral life as an imitation ofGod and/or Christ, especially when the virtues of mercy, humility,and endurance are at stake. In the OT, Yahweh’s behavior towardpeople becomes the standard for Israel’s own conduct. So, forexample, he says, “But let the one who boasts boast about this:that they have the understanding to know me, that I am the Lord, whoexercises kindness, justice and righteousness on earth, for in theseI delight” (Jer. 9:24). In the NT, similar inferences appear,as when Jesus says, “Blessed are the peacemakers, for they willbe called children of God” (Matt. 5:9), the son being one whofollows in his father’s footsteps. We must love our enemies, sothat we may be “children of (our) Father in heaven”(Matt. 5:44–45). We must “be perfect,” as he isperfect (Matt. 5:48). Jesus commands his disciples to wash oneanother’s feet, after his own example (John 13:14–15).They must love each other as he has loved them (John 15:12). The newcommandment to love one another, following the Lord’s example,puts on display his character and their own relationship to him(13:34–35). Jesus prays that his disciples will be “one,”just as the Father and the Son are one (17:22). Paul’s hymn inPhil. 2:5–11 serves this purpose: we must imitate the humilitythat surrendered all, even to the point of crucifixion. Hebrews12:1–2 holds up Christ as one who “for the joy set beforehim endured the cross, scorning its shame,” resulting in hisglory.
Livingout our unique identity.Scripture defines the moral ideal for all persons, whoever they are,because its perspective is not relativistic. Murder, idolatry, andlying are not wrong for some and right for others. Nevertheless, mostof the Bible’s moral teaching has a target audience, so that itoften contains inferences to this effect: “You shall do X (ordoing X is urgent for you), either (a)because you belong to Godin a special way or (b)because he has done this special thingfor you.” In the OT, the target audience is Israel; in the NT,the corresponding group is the church. In both Testaments, however,the same ethical particularism operates, thereby giving the moralexhortations of Paul and Peter, to cite two clear examples, arecognizably “Jewish” structure or theme.
Thelinkage between gift and task, or supernatural identity and behavior,is the basic structure of the Sinai covenant itself. The text movesfrom prologue, “I am the Lord your God, who brought you out ofEgypt,” to moral exhortation, beginning with, “You shallhave no other gods before me” (Exod. 20:1–3; Deut.5:6–7). Echoes of this prologue also occur frequently in the OTas motive clauses. God will say, in effect, “You shall do X,for I am the Lord your God,” or “You shall not do Y, forI am the Lord your God who brought you out of Egypt.” In somecases, the motive clause identifies the people themselves, as in,“For you are a people holy to the Lord your God. The Lord yourGod has chosen you out of all the peoples on the face of the earth tobe his people, his treasured possession” (Deut. 7:6). Or again,“You are the children of the Lord your God. Do not cutyourselves or shave the front of your heads for the dead, for you area people holy to the Lord your God. Out of all the peoples on theface of the earth, the Lord has chosen you to be his treasuredpossession” (Deut. 14:1–2). In some cases, God refers tothe people’s unique condition to shame them, as in, “WhenIsrael was a child, I loved him, and out of Egypt I called my son.But the more they were called, the more they went away from me”(Hos. 11:1–2). Loyalty was especially urgent, given Israel’sexperience of God’s particular love.
Inthe NT, the mandate to live out one’s special identity appearsoften, especially (though not exclusively) in the writings of Pauland Peter. In Rom. 6 those who have been emancipated from sin mustresist its waning influence. In Rom. 8 those who are under the HolySpirit’s new management must walk in accordance with him andshun the mind-set of the flesh. The Corinthians have become anunleavened batch of dough; therefore, they must “Get rid of theold yeast,” which tolerates extraordinary sin (1Cor. 5).The members of Christ’s one body are to function as one newhumanity (1Cor. 12:12–31). If the Galatians live by theSpirit, they must also walk by the Spirit (Gal. 5:25). Peter tellshis readers to love one another because they have been “bornagain” of “imperishable seed” (1Pet.1:22–23). They are a “chosen race,” a “royalpriesthood,” and a “holy nation”; therefore, theymust proclaim his excellence and abstain from carnal passions (1Pet.2:9–11). Jesus himself says that because he is the vine and weare the branches, we must abide in him (John 15:1–11). In allthese cases, the target audience has a special relationship to Godthat imposes on them corresponding duties or priorities, so that theyreflect his holiness, value what he values, and attain the goals thathe has set before them.
Livingin unity with one another.The first sin separated God from humankind and damaged all otherrelationships (Gen. 3). From that point onward, Adam and Eve wouldlive in tension (Gen. 3:16), and their son Cain kills his brotherAbel (Gen. 4:8). Disunity results from sin; and in some cases, Godscatters sinners as judgment on their wickedness (e.g., Gen. 11:1–9;1Kings 11). It is “good and pleasant” when “God’speople live together in unity” (Ps. 133:1), and obedience to OTteaching would make them do so. Nevertheless, sin stands betweenYahweh and his people, and it stands between one Israelite andanother. Disunity, in all these dimensions, is the unfinishedbusiness of the OT story.
TheNT presents unity as both an effect and a duty (or a gift and a task)of the new life in Christ. We are one in Christ, and we must live inunity of fellowship with one another. Jews and Gentiles—indeed,people from all walks of life—become one body, a new kind ofpeople, defined by relationships that are “thicker than blood,”so to speak, as blood is thicker than water. Paul, as the apostle tothe Gentiles, enforces this theme throughout his letters, so that hisexhortations concentrate on the church, in the first instance, ratherthan the individual. Christians must display the social virtues oflove and humility, resisting selfish ambition and pride, both ofwhich separate believer from believer and each from the head of thechurch, who is Christ. Romans and Ephesians make a positive case forChristian unity among Jews and Gentiles, while Philippians (perhaps,in a broader sense, also Galatians and Colossians) confronts adivisive tendency. The essential vice denounced in 1–2Corinthiansis arrogant grandstanding, which rejects Paul’s “messageof the cross” (1Cor. 1:18) and subdivides the church intocults of personality. Worldly forces are centrifugal, leading us awayfrom one another and into competition for influence, wealth, andpublic honor. In contrast, the Holy Spirit’s force iscentripetal, creating unity where no one would expect it and leadingeach person to self-sacrifice so that others in the body of Christmight be built up in him.
An enclosed farming area where vegetables and fruit trees arecultivated. Vineyards, orchards, and olive groves belong to a broadercategory of the garden. Gardens in biblical times generally weresurrounded by a wall of mud-bricks or stones, along with a hedge ofthorny bushes (Prov. 24:31; Song 4:12; Isa. 5:5). A booth orwatchtower was set up to guard it from thieves and wild animals (Job27:18; Isa. 1:8; 5:2). For irrigation, water was raised from wells orbrought in through a canal system connected to rivers or springs.
Sincemost of the land of Canaan was a hilly and arid region, awell-watered garden was highly valued. Thus Balaam blesses the tentsof the Israelites to be “like gardens beside a river”(Num. 24:6–7; cf. Ps. 1:3; Jer. 17:8). Notably, in Gen. 13:10the Plain of Jordan, in its fertility from the ample water supply, islikened to two places: “the garden of the Lord” and “theland of Egypt.” The land of Egypt had developed vegetablegardens, with an irrigation system connected to the Nile (Deut.11:10; cf. Num. 11:5). The garden of the Lord, or the garden of Eden,was also such a place of fruitfulness, with rivers and fruit trees,especially the tree of life (Gen. 2:9–10).
Thegarden of Eden also carries various connotations that are developedin the rest of the Bible. It is a place secluded from the world,where nakedness is not shameful (Gen. 2:25). Song of Songs describesthe garden as a place of perfect love. It is also a meeting placebetween God and human beings (Gen. 2:16–17; 3:8–14; cf.idolatrous gardens in Isa. 1:29–31; 65:3; 66:17). Moreimportant, God is the gardener who planted it (Gen. 2:8).
Themetaphorical identification of God as the gardener is frequentlydeveloped in the OT. In Deut. 11:10–12 the land of Canaan isdescribed as a garden that God himself will take care of. Isaiahpresents Zion as the vineyard that God planted and cultivated butdecided to destroy due to its unfruitfulness (Isa. 5:1–7; cf.Jer. 12:10; Ezek. 19:10; Joel 2:3); after the time of its desolation,however, God also promises to restore and care for it (Isa. 27:2–6).Restored Zion is likened to a well-watered garden and even the gardenof Eden (Isa. 51:3; 58:11; 61:11; cf. Jer. 31:12; Ezek. 36:34–35;47:12).
Descriptionsof God as the gardener perhaps convey the conception of kingship.Gardens belonged to socially prestigious people, especially royalty,as indicated by the references to the king’s garden atJerusalem (2Kings 25:4; Jer. 39:4; 52:7; Neh. 3:15) as well asthe Persian palace garden (Esther 1:5; 7:7–8). But a royalgarden was particularly regarded as the main achievement of a king(Eccles. 2:4–6; also note the story of Naboth’s vineyardin 1Kings 21). The allusions to the garden of Eden in the tauntsongs of the kings of Tyre, Assyria, and Pharaoh (Ezek. 28:13;31:8–9, 16, 18) also support this relationship.
Metaphoricaluse of the garden continues in the NT. The people of God aredescribed as the vegetation whose fruits reveal their identities (cf.Matt. 7:16–19). The need to bear fruit is particularlyemphasized in the vineyard imagery of John 15, in which God isintroduced as a farmer, Jesus as the vine, and believers as itsbranches. Paul mentions the bearing of fruit as the goal of Christianlife (Rom. 7:4–5; Phil. 1:11; Col. 1:10), which is possiblethrough the work of the Holy Spirit (Gal. 5:22–25). Revelation21:1–22:5 describes the new Jerusalem as a restored garden ofEden, in the midst of which a river of life, issuing from beneathGod’s throne, provides abundant water for the tree of life onboth sides.
Alsonoteworthy is the reference in the Gospel of John to the two gardens:the garden of Jesus’ arrest (18:1–11) and the garden ofJesus’ burial (19:41). Considering their location in Jerusalemand the usage of royal gardens for burial (cf. 2Kings 21:18),it seems that John mentions the gardens in order to underline Jesus’kingship, which he particularly develops in John 18–19. Mary’sperception of the risen Christ as a gardener possibly supports thisinterpretation (John 20:15).
The word “Gentiles” is often used to translatewords meaning “nations” or “peoples.” It hasa Latin etymology from gens, meaning “clan” or “family”and, eventually, “race” or “people.” TheGreek word genos (“race, kind”) has a close relationship.In the Bible it loosely refers to nations or peoples other thanIsrael. English Bibles often translate it as “nations,”“peoples,” or “races.”
OldTestament
Ingeneral, within the OT, Gentiles are not God’s people. Godchose Israel to be his people, not other nations (Deut. 7:6–8;10:15; 26:18–19). Israelite ancestry determines membership inthe covenant people. Some writings thus forbid Gentiles from becomingpart of God’s people (Ezra 9–10; Neh. 13).
TheOT more commonly envisions Gentiles experiencing covenant blessingthrough Israel if they functionally become Israelites by keeping thelaw, including the parts we understand as ceremonial-ritual law. Thelaw is that special life-giving and regulating aspect of the covenantthat God revealed to Israel, which defines Israel (Lev. 18:1–5;20:22–26; Deut. 4:1–8, 32–40; 6:24–25; 8:1–6;10:12–11:32; 30:11–20; Josh. 1:7–9; Neh. 9:29; Pss.119; 147:19–20; Ezek. 20:9–13, 21).
Suchlaw/Israel-centered conditions for Gentiles relate to a broader OTunderstanding: God will reach and restore the world through Israel,the locus of his saving activity. God will bless the nations in andthrough Abraham’s descendants, Israel (Gen. 12:1–3;17:4–6; 22:18; 26:4; 28:14). This covenant specificallyinvolves keeping the law (e.g., circumcision [Gen. 17:9–14]).Some passages depict this happening through the nations being subjectto Israel (Gen. 49:8–12; Num. 24:9, 17–19; Isa. 11:10–16;14:2; 54:3). In other passages the nations will be blessed byIsrael’s God as they come to Israel, bring back exiled Israel,serve Israel, present Israel with their own wealth, and/or fearIsrael’s God (Isa. 45:23; 49:22–23; 51:4–5; 55:5;60:3–16; 61:5–6; 66:12–13, 18–21; Mic.7:12–17; Zech. 2:11; 8:22–23). Other passages furtherelucidate the law-defined nature of such Gentile participation in theGod of Israel’s salvation (Exod. 12:48; Isa. 56:1–8; Jer.12:14–17; Zech. 14:16–21). The portrait of the nations“flowing” up the mountain of God associates Gentileparticipation in God’s salvation explicitly with the law (Isa.2:2–5; Mic. 4:1–5).
TheServant Songs in Isa. 40–55 also reflect thislaw/Israel-centered nature of salvation for the Gentiles. Theservant, explicitly identified as Israel (41:8, 9; 42:18–19;44:1–2, 21; 45:4; 48:20; 49:3; 54:17; see also 65:9; 66:14),serves as God’s instrument for reaching the nations (42:1, 6;49:6; 52:15). The OT usually condemns Gentiles who remain separatefrom Israel to some form of judgment, especially Gentiles who haveharmed Israel.
SecondTemple Judaism and Early Christianity
SecondTemple Jewish sources exhibit diverse views about Gentiles, theirnature, their possible relation to God, and their fate at the end.Many reflect something resembling the OT views. Israel as God’speople defined by the law, variously understood and contested amongSecond Temple sources, generally continues to be the locus of God’sultimate blessing activities.
SituatingJesus and early Christianity within this matrix of Gentilesensitivities is illuminating. As the Jesus movement spread acrossthe Mediterranean, proclaiming the ultimate salvation of the God ofIsrael in and through Jesus the Messiah, questions about how Gentilesexperience this salvation of the Jewish God had paramount importance.
SomeChristians, in line with traditional readings of the OT, thought thatGentiles must keep the law, becoming Jews to experience the God ofIsrael’s salvation in Jesus (Acts 11:1–3; 15:1, 5; Paul’sopponents in Galatia). Gentiles, after all, were separated from Godand his salvation promises to Israel (Rom. 9:4–5; Eph. 2:11–13;1Pet. 2:10). They stood under God’s condemnation,especially because they were controlled by their passions and sin,lacking self-mastery and the ability to live rightly (Rom. 1:18–32;Eph. 4:17–19; 1Thess. 4:5; 1Pet. 1:14, 18).
However,various NT authors, such as Paul, contend that Gentiles need not keepthe law, functionally becoming Jews, in order to participate in God’sultimate salvation in Jesus. Christ, the climax of Israel itself, hasreplaced the law’s centrality and ultimacy with himself and hisdeath and resurrection (Rom. 10:4). Through being united to Christ bythe Spirit, Gentiles are, apart from the law, grafted into true,redefined Israel and become Abraham’s descendants, inheritingGod’s promised salvation for Israel (Rom. 3:21–4:25;8:1–17; 9:30–10:17; 11:13–32; Gal. 2:11–4:7;Eph. 2:11–22; 3:4–6). In Christ, by the Spirit, Gentilesattain self-mastery over their passions and sin and thus live rightlybefore God, inheriting the kingdom of God in Christ (Rom. 6:1–8:30;1Cor. 6:9–11; Gal. 5:16–26; 1Thess. 4:3–8).Various NT writings thus reconfigure the situation of Gentiles withrespect to Israel’s God because of what God did in Christ.
Debatesabout Gentiles, the law, salvation, and what Christ means for theseissues persisted after Paul. Early Christians lacked an unequivocalsaying from Jesus on the matter, and not all accepted Paul and someother NT writings.
The word “Gentiles” is often used to translatewords meaning “nations” or “peoples.” It hasa Latin etymology from gens, meaning “clan” or “family”and, eventually, “race” or “people.” TheGreek word genos (“race, kind”) has a close relationship.In the Bible it loosely refers to nations or peoples other thanIsrael. English Bibles often translate it as “nations,”“peoples,” or “races.”
OldTestament
Ingeneral, within the OT, Gentiles are not God’s people. Godchose Israel to be his people, not other nations (Deut. 7:6–8;10:15; 26:18–19). Israelite ancestry determines membership inthe covenant people. Some writings thus forbid Gentiles from becomingpart of God’s people (Ezra 9–10; Neh. 13).
TheOT more commonly envisions Gentiles experiencing covenant blessingthrough Israel if they functionally become Israelites by keeping thelaw, including the parts we understand as ceremonial-ritual law. Thelaw is that special life-giving and regulating aspect of the covenantthat God revealed to Israel, which defines Israel (Lev. 18:1–5;20:22–26; Deut. 4:1–8, 32–40; 6:24–25; 8:1–6;10:12–11:32; 30:11–20; Josh. 1:7–9; Neh. 9:29; Pss.119; 147:19–20; Ezek. 20:9–13, 21).
Suchlaw/Israel-centered conditions for Gentiles relate to a broader OTunderstanding: God will reach and restore the world through Israel,the locus of his saving activity. God will bless the nations in andthrough Abraham’s descendants, Israel (Gen. 12:1–3;17:4–6; 22:18; 26:4; 28:14). This covenant specificallyinvolves keeping the law (e.g., circumcision [Gen. 17:9–14]).Some passages depict this happening through the nations being subjectto Israel (Gen. 49:8–12; Num. 24:9, 17–19; Isa. 11:10–16;14:2; 54:3). In other passages the nations will be blessed byIsrael’s God as they come to Israel, bring back exiled Israel,serve Israel, present Israel with their own wealth, and/or fearIsrael’s God (Isa. 45:23; 49:22–23; 51:4–5; 55:5;60:3–16; 61:5–6; 66:12–13, 18–21; Mic.7:12–17; Zech. 2:11; 8:22–23). Other passages furtherelucidate the law-defined nature of such Gentile participation in theGod of Israel’s salvation (Exod. 12:48; Isa. 56:1–8; Jer.12:14–17; Zech. 14:16–21). The portrait of the nations“flowing” up the mountain of God associates Gentileparticipation in God’s salvation explicitly with the law (Isa.2:2–5; Mic. 4:1–5).
TheServant Songs in Isa. 40–55 also reflect thislaw/Israel-centered nature of salvation for the Gentiles. Theservant, explicitly identified as Israel (41:8, 9; 42:18–19;44:1–2, 21; 45:4; 48:20; 49:3; 54:17; see also 65:9; 66:14),serves as God’s instrument for reaching the nations (42:1, 6;49:6; 52:15). The OT usually condemns Gentiles who remain separatefrom Israel to some form of judgment, especially Gentiles who haveharmed Israel.
SecondTemple Judaism and Early Christianity
SecondTemple Jewish sources exhibit diverse views about Gentiles, theirnature, their possible relation to God, and their fate at the end.Many reflect something resembling the OT views. Israel as God’speople defined by the law, variously understood and contested amongSecond Temple sources, generally continues to be the locus of God’sultimate blessing activities.
SituatingJesus and early Christianity within this matrix of Gentilesensitivities is illuminating. As the Jesus movement spread acrossthe Mediterranean, proclaiming the ultimate salvation of the God ofIsrael in and through Jesus the Messiah, questions about how Gentilesexperience this salvation of the Jewish God had paramount importance.
SomeChristians, in line with traditional readings of the OT, thought thatGentiles must keep the law, becoming Jews to experience the God ofIsrael’s salvation in Jesus (Acts 11:1–3; 15:1, 5; Paul’sopponents in Galatia). Gentiles, after all, were separated from Godand his salvation promises to Israel (Rom. 9:4–5; Eph. 2:11–13;1Pet. 2:10). They stood under God’s condemnation,especially because they were controlled by their passions and sin,lacking self-mastery and the ability to live rightly (Rom. 1:18–32;Eph. 4:17–19; 1Thess. 4:5; 1Pet. 1:14, 18).
However,various NT authors, such as Paul, contend that Gentiles need not keepthe law, functionally becoming Jews, in order to participate in God’sultimate salvation in Jesus. Christ, the climax of Israel itself, hasreplaced the law’s centrality and ultimacy with himself and hisdeath and resurrection (Rom. 10:4). Through being united to Christ bythe Spirit, Gentiles are, apart from the law, grafted into true,redefined Israel and become Abraham’s descendants, inheritingGod’s promised salvation for Israel (Rom. 3:21–4:25;8:1–17; 9:30–10:17; 11:13–32; Gal. 2:11–4:7;Eph. 2:11–22; 3:4–6). In Christ, by the Spirit, Gentilesattain self-mastery over their passions and sin and thus live rightlybefore God, inheriting the kingdom of God in Christ (Rom. 6:1–8:30;1Cor. 6:9–11; Gal. 5:16–26; 1Thess. 4:3–8).Various NT writings thus reconfigure the situation of Gentiles withrespect to Israel’s God because of what God did in Christ.
Debatesabout Gentiles, the law, salvation, and what Christ means for theseissues persisted after Paul. Early Christians lacked an unequivocalsaying from Jesus on the matter, and not all accepted Paul and someother NT writings.
Paul twice refers to incontinency (KJV), or a lack ofself-control (NIV), in lists of vices (1Cor. 7:5; 2Tim.3:3). The opposite of incontinency, self-control, is a “fruitof the Spirit” (Gal. 5:23) and is commended in 2Pet. 1:6(cf. 2Tim.1:7).
There are few subjects more prominent in the Bible than sin;hardly a page can be found where sin is not mentioned, described, orportrayed. As the survey that follows demonstrates, sin is one of thedriving forces of the entire Bible.
Sinin the Bible
OldTestament.Sin enters the biblical story in Gen. 3. Despite God’scommandment to the contrary (2:16–17), Eve ate from the tree ofthe knowledge of good and evil at the prompting of the serpent. WhenAdam joined Eve in eating the fruit, their rebellion was complete.They attempted to cover their guilt and shame, but the fig leaveswere inadequate. God confronted them and was unimpressed with theirattempts to shift the blame. Judgment fell heavily on the serpent,Eve, and Adam; even creation itself was affected (3:17–18).
Inthe midst of judgment, God made it clear in two specific ways thatsin did not have the last word. First, God cryptically promised toput hostility between the offspring of the serpent and that of thewoman (Gen. 3:15). Although the serpent would inflict a severe blowupon the offspring of the woman, the offspring ofthe womanwould defeat the serpent. Second, God replaced the inadequatecovering of the fig leaves with animal skins (3:21). The implicationis that the death of the animal functioned as a substitute for Adamand Eve, covering their sin.
InGen. 4–11 the disastrous effects of sin and death are on fulldisplay. Not even the cataclysmic judgment of the flood was able toeradicate the wickedness of the human heart (6:5; 8:21). Humansgathered in rebellion at the tower of Babel in an effort to make aname for themselves and thwart God’s intention for them toscatter across the earth (11:1–9).
Inone sense, the rest of the OT hangs on this question: How will a holyGod satisfy his wrath against human sin and restore his relationshipwith human beings without compromising his justice? The short answeris: through Abraham and his offspring (Gen. 12:1–3), whoeventually multiplied into the nation of Israel. After God redeemedthem from their slavery in Egypt (Exod. 1–15), he brought themto Sinai to make a covenant with them that was predicated onobedience (19:5–6). A central component of this covenant wasthe sacrificial system (e.g., Lev. 1–7), which God provided asa means of dealing with sin. In addition to the regular sacrificesmade for sin throughout the year, God set apart one day a year toatone for Israel’s sins (Lev. 16). On this Day of Atonement thehigh priest took the blood of a goat into the holy of holies andsprinkled it on the mercy seat as a sin offering. Afterward he took asecond goat and confessed “all the iniquities of the people ofIsrael, and all their transgressions, all their sins, putting them onthe head of the goat, and sending it away into the wilderness....The goat shall bear on itself all their iniquities to a barrenregion; and the goat shall be set free in the wilderness” (Lev.16:21–22 NRSV). In order for the holy God to dwell with sinfulpeople, extensive provisions had to be made to enable fellowship.
Despitethese provisions, Israel repeatedly and persistently broke itscovenant with God. Even at the highest points of prosperity under thereign of David and his son Solomon, sin plagued God’s people,including the kings themselves. David committed adultery and murder(2Sam. 11:1–27). Solomon had hundreds of foreign wivesand concubines, who turned his heart away from Yahweh to other gods(1Kings 11:1–8). Once the nation split into two (Israeland Judah), sin and its consequences accelerated. Idolatry becamerampant. The result was exile from the land (Israel in 722 BC, Judahin 586 BC). But God refused to give up on his people. He promised toraise up a servant who would suffer for the sins of his people as aguilt offering (Isa. 52:13–53:12).
AfterGod’s people returned from exile, hopes remained high that thegreat prophetic promises, including the final remission of sins, wereat hand. But disillusionment quickly set in as the returnees remainedunder foreign oppression, the rebuilt temple was but a shell ofSolomon’s, and a Davidic king was nowhere to be found. Beforelong, God’s people were back to their old ways, turning awayfrom him. Even the priests, who were charged with the administrationof the sacrificial system dealing with the sin of the people, failedto properly carry out their duties (Mal. 1:6–2:9).
NewTestament.During the next four hundred years of prophetic silence, the longingfor God to finally put away the sins of his people grew. At last,when the conception and birth of Jesus were announced, it wasrevealed that he would “save his people from their sins”(Matt. 1:21). In the days before the public ministry of Jesus, Johnthe Baptist prepared the way for him by “preaching a baptism ofrepentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Luke 3:3). Whereasboth Adam and Israel were disobedient sons of God, Jesus proved to bethe obedient Son by his faithfulness to God in the face of temptation(Matt. 2:13–15; 4:1–11; 26:36–46; Luke 3:23–4:13;Rom. 5:12–21; Phil. 2:8; Heb. 5:8–10). He was also theSuffering Servant who gave his life as a ransom for many (Mark 10:45;cf. Isa. 52:13–53:12). On the cross Jesus experienced the wrathof God that God’s people rightly deserved for their sin. Withhis justice fully satisfied, God was free to forgive and justify allwho are identified with Christ by faith (Rom. 3:21–26). Whatneither the law nor the blood of bulls and goats could do, JesusChrist did with his own blood (Rom. 8:3–4; Heb. 9:1–10:18).
Afterhis resurrection and ascension, Jesus’ followers beganproclaiming the “good news” (gospel) of what Jesus didand calling to people, “Repent and be baptized, every one ofyou, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins”(Acts 2:38). As people began to experience God’s forgiveness,they were so transformed that they forgave those who sinned againstthem (Matt. 6:12; 18:15–20; Col. 3:13). Although believerscontinue to struggle with sin in this life (Rom. 8:12–13; Gal.5:16–25), sin is no longer master over them (Rom. 6:1–23).The Holy Spirit empowers them to fight sin as they long for the newheaven and earth, where there will be no sin, no death, and no curse(Rom. 8:12–30; Rev. 21–22).
Aseven this very brief survey of the biblical story line from Genesisto Revelation shows, sin is a fundamental aspect of the Bible’splot. Sin generates the conflict that drives the biblical narrative;it is the fundamental “problem” that must be solved inorder for God’s purposes in creation to be completed.
Definitionand Terminology
Definitionof sin. Althoughno definition can capture completely the breadth and depth of theconcept of sin, it seems best to regard sin as a failure to conformto God’s law in thought, feeling, attitude, word, action,orientation, or nature. In this definition it must be remembered thatGod’s law is an expression of his perfect and holy character,so sin is not merely the violation of an impersonal law but rather isa personal offense against the Creator. Sin cannot be limited toactions. Desires (Exod. 20:17; Matt. 5:27–30), emotions (Gen.4:6–7; Matt. 5:21–26), and even our fallen nature ashuman beings (Ps. 51:5; Eph. 2:1–3) can be sinful as well.
Terminology.TheBible uses dozens of terms to speak of sin. Neatly classifying themis not easy, as there is significant overlap in the meaning and useof the various terms. Nonetheless, many of the terms fit in one ofthe following four categories.
1.Personal. Sin is an act of rebellion against God as the creator andruler of the universe. Rather than recognizing God’sself-revelation in nature and expressing gratitude, humankindfoolishly worships the creation rather than the Creator (Rom.1:19–23). The abundant love, grace, and mercy that God shows tohumans make their rebellion all the more stunning (Isa. 1:2–31).Another way of expressing the personal nature of sin is ungodlinessor impiety, which refers to lack of devotion to God (Ps. 35:16; Isa.9:17; 1Pet. 4:18).
2.Legal. A variety of words portray sin in terms drawn from thelawcourts. Words such as “transgression” and “trespass”picture sin as the violation of a specific command of God or thecrossing of a boundary that God has established (Num. 14:41–42;Rom. 4:7, 15). When individuals do things that are contrary to God’slaw, they are deemed unrighteous or unjust (Isa. 10:1; Matt. 5:45;Rom. 3:5). Breaking the covenant with God is described as violatinghis statutes and disobeying his laws (Isa. 24:5). The result isguilt, an objective legal status that is present whenever God’slaw is violated regardless of whether the individual subjectivelyfeels guilt.
3.Moral. In the most basic sense, sin is evil, the opposite of what isgood. Therefore, God’s people are to hate evil and love what isgood (Amos 5:14–15; Rom. 12:9). Similarly, Scripture contraststhe upright and the wicked (Prov. 11:11; 12:6; 14:11). One could alsoinclude here the term “iniquity,” which is used to speakof perversity or crookedness (Pss. 51:2; 78:38; Isa. 59:2). Frequentmention is also made of sexual immorality as an especially grievousdeparture from God’s ways (Num. 25:1; Rom. 1:26–27;1Cor. 5:1–11).
4.Cultic. In order for a person to approach a holy God, that individualhad to be in a state of purity before him. While a person couldbecome impure without necessarily sinning (e.g., a menstruating womanwas impure but not sinful), in some cases the term “impurity”clearly refers to a sinful state (Lev. 20:21; Isa. 1:25; Ezek.24:13). The same is true of the term “unclean.” Althoughit is frequently used in Leviticus to speak of ritual purity, inother places it clearly refers to sinful actions or states (Ps. 51:7;Prov. 20:9; Isa. 6:5; 64:6).
Metaphors
Inaddition to specific terms used for “sin,” the Bible usesseveral metaphors or images to describe it. The following four areamong the more prominent.
Missingthe mark.In both Hebrew and Greek, two of the most common words for “sin”have the sense of missing the mark. But this does not mean that sinis reduced to a mistake or an oversight. The point is not that aperson simply misses the mark of what God requires; instead, it isthat he or she is aiming for the wrong target altogether (Exod. 34:9;Deut. 9:18). Regardless of whether missing the mark is intentional ornot, the individual is still responsible (Lev. 4:2–31; Num.15:30).
Departingfrom the way.Sin as departing from God’s way is especially prominent in thewisdom literature. Contrasts are drawn between the way of therighteous and the way of the wicked (Ps. 1:1, 6; Prov. 4:11–19).Wisdom is pictured as a woman who summons people to walk in her ways,but fools ignore her and depart from her ways (Prov. 9:1–18).Those who do not walk in God’s ways are eventually destroyed bytheir own wickedness (Prov. 11:5; 12:26; 13:15).
Adultery.Since God’s relationship with his people is described as amarriage (Isa. 62:4–5; Ezek. 16:8–14; Eph. 5:25–32),it is not surprising that the Bible describes their unfaithfulness asadultery. The prophet Hosea’s marriage to an adulterous womanvividly portrays Israel’s unfaithfulness to Yahweh (Hos. 1–3).When the Israelites chase after other gods, Yahweh accuses them ofspiritual adultery in extremely graphic terms (Ezek. 16:15–52).When Christians join themselves to a prostitute or participate inidolatry, they too are engaged in spiritual adultery (1Cor.6:12–20; 10:1–22).
Slavery.Sin is portrayed as a power that enslaves. The prophets make it clearthat Israel’s bondage to foreign powers is in fact a picture ofits far greater enslavement to sin (Isa. 42:8; 43:4–7;49:1–12). Paul makes a similar point when he refers to thosewho do not know Christ as slaves to sin, unable to do anything thatpleases God (Rom. 6:1–23; 8:5–8). Sin is a cosmic powerthat is capable of using even the law to entrap people in its snare(Rom. 7:7–25).
Scopeand Consequences
Sindoes not travel alone; it brings a large collection of baggage alongwith it. Here we briefly examine its scope and consequences.
Scope.The stain of sin extends to every part of the created order. As aresult of Adam’s sin, the ground was cursed to resist humanefforts to cultivate it, producing thorns and thistles (Gen.3:17–18). The promised land is described as groaning under theweight of Israel’s sin and in need of Sabbath rest (2Chron.36:21; Jer. 12:4); Paul applies the same language to all creation aswell (Rom. 8:19–22).
Sinaffects every aspect of the individual: mind, heart, will, emotions,motives, actions, and nature (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Jer. 17:9; Rom.3:9–18). Sometimes this reality is referred to as “totaldepravity.” This phrase means not that people are as sinful asthey could be but rather that every aspect of their lives is taintedby sin. As a descendant of Adam, every person enters the world as asinner who then sins (Rom. 5:12–21). Sin also pollutes societalstructures, corrupting culture, governments, nations, and economicmarkets, to name but a few.
Consequences.Since the two greatest commandments are to love God and to love one’sneighbor as oneself (Matt. 22:34–40), it makes sense that sinhas consequences on both the vertical and the horizontal level.Vertically, sin results in both physical and spiritual death (Gen.2:16–17; Rom. 5:12–14). It renders humanity guilty inGod’s court of law, turns us into God’s enemies, andsubjects us to God’s righteous wrath (Rom. 1:18; 3:19–20;5:6–11). On the horizontal level, sin causes conflict betweenindividuals and harms relationships of every kind. It breedsmistrust, jealousy, and selfishness that infect even the closestrelationships.
Conclusion
Nosubject is more unpleasant than sin. But a proper understanding ofsin is essential for understanding the gospel of Jesus Christ. As thePuritan Thomas Watson put it, “Until sin be bitter, Christ willnot be sweet.”
Patience is a moral attribute that God possesses and thathumans may possess. One who has patience allows time to pass whilemaintaining a positive disposition, often in the face of suffering(Hab. 3:16; 2Tim. 3:10–11; James 5:10), as the KJVtranslation “longsuffering” implies (cf. Prov. 14:29NASB: “slow to anger”). The Scriptures universally speakof patience as an admirable quality and associate patience with othervirtues, such as inner peace (Ps. 37:7), wisdom (Prov. 19:11),persuasiveness (Prov. 25:15), humility (Eccles. 7:8), and kindness(Rom. 2:4; 1Cor. 13:4).
Numerouspassages praise God’s patience. Humans try (Isa. 7:13) and showcontempt for (Rom. 2:4) God’s patience, sometimes by refusingto be patient with others even though they themselves have receivedmercy from God (Matt. 18:23–35). Nonetheless, God displays hispatience by granting them eternal life through faith in Christ(1Tim. 1:16). In fact, God has patiently delayed destroying theworld because he is compassionate and wants all to come to repentance(2Pet. 3:9). God’s patience is evident even toward thosewho are destined for destruction (Rom. 9:22; 1Pet. 3:20).
Justas God is patient, he imparts patience to the Christian through hisHoly Spirit (Gal. 5:22). Like Abraham, the prophets, and any farmer,Christians are to exhibit patience, bearing with people both insideand outside the church (Eph. 4:2; 1Thess. 5:14–15) asthey wait eagerly for Christ’s return (Heb. 6:12–15;James 5:7–10). Those in Christian leadership must modelpatience and encourage others with patience (2Tim. 3:10; 4:2).
Divination and magic were fairly common practices throughoutthe biblical period. Divination was especially prevalent in theancient Near East during the OT era, but many divination andmagic/sorcery practices continued into the NT era throughout theMediterranean region as well. Divination, which encompasses a widerange of magic-related practices, generally refers to varioustechniques used to communicate with supernatural entities such asgods and spirits in order to determine the future, ward off evil, orchange something for the better. Divination emphasizes obtaininginformation that would otherwise be unknown to humans. Magic andsorcery, on the other hand, while overlapping to some degree withdivination, use curses and spells to influence and affect people,often with the intention of harming one’s enemies, but also toenhance the fortunes of those issuing the spells. Thus, magic andsorcery generally emphasize influencing people or events throughsupernatural or occult means. However, often the practices overlapand are frequently carried out by the same person. Likewise,especially in the OT and throughout the ancient Near East during theOT era, the terminology for diviners, magicians, and sorcerers wasquite fluid and not precise or restrictive.
Thenonbiblical literary texts of Israel’s neighbors in the ancientNear East (especially Egypt, Assyria, and Babylonia) contain hundredsof references to various types of divination and magic. The mostcommon divination techniques involved (1)watching birds and thepatterns of their flight; (2)observing drops of oil spreadingacross the surface of water in a bucket; (3)astrology; and(4)removing and observing the entrails of animals, especiallythe liver. From observing these things, the skilled divinersupposedly could interpret the future and advise a king (or otherpatron) about what course to follow. Magic included the casting ofspells as well as the wearing of charms and amulets.
Thebook of Acts clearly indicates that magic and sorcery (and probablydivination) were still quite prevalent in the NT era. Peter confrontsa sorcerer, Simon, in Acts 8:9–24. In numerous earlynonbiblical Christian writings, there are references to this sameSimon as a powerful sorcerer who contended with Peter in variousways. Later in Acts, Paul and Barnabas encountered a Jewish sorcerer,Bar-Jesus, at the very beginning of their first missionary journey(Acts 13:6), perhaps indicating that this type of hostile power wasfairly prevalent in many of the places where the early church wastaking root. Likewise, in Acts 19:19, when the citizens of Ephesusresponded to the gospel in large numbers, “a number who hadpracticed sorcery brought their scrolls together and burned them,”indicating that sorcery was widespread in Ephesus.
Inthe OT, the practice of divination and numerous other kinds of magicand sorcery was strictly prohibited. Deuteronomy 18:9–14presents a list of prohibited practices (although the precisetranslation of the Hebrew terms in this text is difficult). There,divination and all other related pagan methods of seeing ordetermining the future are described as detestable. Likewise, a widerange of practices relating to sorcery, magic, and witchcraft areprohibited (casting spells, consulting with the dead, etc.). Incontrast, this passage is followed by a description of the proper wayto engage with the supernatural: through true biblical prophetschosen by God and speaking in his name (Deut. 18:17–22).
Likewise,in the NT, especially in the book of Acts, those who had the Spiritwere proved repeatedly to be infinitely more powerful than even themost famous of sorcerers and those who practiced witchcraft. Paulincludes “witchcraft” (Gk. pharmakeia, which probablyincludes sorcery and magic) in his list of “acts of the flesh”(Gal. 5:19–20). Finally, the book of Revelation pronouncesjudgment on those who practice magic arts and sorcery (9:21; 18:23;21:8; 22:15).
The word “Gentiles” is often used to translatewords meaning “nations” or “peoples.” It hasa Latin etymology from gens, meaning “clan” or “family”and, eventually, “race” or “people.” TheGreek word genos (“race, kind”) has a close relationship.In the Bible it loosely refers to nations or peoples other thanIsrael. English Bibles often translate it as “nations,”“peoples,” or “races.”
OldTestament
Ingeneral, within the OT, Gentiles are not God’s people. Godchose Israel to be his people, not other nations (Deut. 7:6–8;10:15; 26:18–19). Israelite ancestry determines membership inthe covenant people. Some writings thus forbid Gentiles from becomingpart of God’s people (Ezra 9–10; Neh. 13).
TheOT more commonly envisions Gentiles experiencing covenant blessingthrough Israel if they functionally become Israelites by keeping thelaw, including the parts we understand as ceremonial-ritual law. Thelaw is that special life-giving and regulating aspect of the covenantthat God revealed to Israel, which defines Israel (Lev. 18:1–5;20:22–26; Deut. 4:1–8, 32–40; 6:24–25; 8:1–6;10:12–11:32; 30:11–20; Josh. 1:7–9; Neh. 9:29; Pss.119; 147:19–20; Ezek. 20:9–13, 21).
Suchlaw/Israel-centered conditions for Gentiles relate to a broader OTunderstanding: God will reach and restore the world through Israel,the locus of his saving activity. God will bless the nations in andthrough Abraham’s descendants, Israel (Gen. 12:1–3;17:4–6; 22:18; 26:4; 28:14). This covenant specificallyinvolves keeping the law (e.g., circumcision [Gen. 17:9–14]).Some passages depict this happening through the nations being subjectto Israel (Gen. 49:8–12; Num. 24:9, 17–19; Isa. 11:10–16;14:2; 54:3). In other passages the nations will be blessed byIsrael’s God as they come to Israel, bring back exiled Israel,serve Israel, present Israel with their own wealth, and/or fearIsrael’s God (Isa. 45:23; 49:22–23; 51:4–5; 55:5;60:3–16; 61:5–6; 66:12–13, 18–21; Mic.7:12–17; Zech. 2:11; 8:22–23). Other passages furtherelucidate the law-defined nature of such Gentile participation in theGod of Israel’s salvation (Exod. 12:48; Isa. 56:1–8; Jer.12:14–17; Zech. 14:16–21). The portrait of the nations“flowing” up the mountain of God associates Gentileparticipation in God’s salvation explicitly with the law (Isa.2:2–5; Mic. 4:1–5).
TheServant Songs in Isa. 40–55 also reflect thislaw/Israel-centered nature of salvation for the Gentiles. Theservant, explicitly identified as Israel (41:8, 9; 42:18–19;44:1–2, 21; 45:4; 48:20; 49:3; 54:17; see also 65:9; 66:14),serves as God’s instrument for reaching the nations (42:1, 6;49:6; 52:15). The OT usually condemns Gentiles who remain separatefrom Israel to some form of judgment, especially Gentiles who haveharmed Israel.
SecondTemple Judaism and Early Christianity
SecondTemple Jewish sources exhibit diverse views about Gentiles, theirnature, their possible relation to God, and their fate at the end.Many reflect something resembling the OT views. Israel as God’speople defined by the law, variously understood and contested amongSecond Temple sources, generally continues to be the locus of God’sultimate blessing activities.
SituatingJesus and early Christianity within this matrix of Gentilesensitivities is illuminating. As the Jesus movement spread acrossthe Mediterranean, proclaiming the ultimate salvation of the God ofIsrael in and through Jesus the Messiah, questions about how Gentilesexperience this salvation of the Jewish God had paramount importance.
SomeChristians, in line with traditional readings of the OT, thought thatGentiles must keep the law, becoming Jews to experience the God ofIsrael’s salvation in Jesus (Acts 11:1–3; 15:1, 5; Paul’sopponents in Galatia). Gentiles, after all, were separated from Godand his salvation promises to Israel (Rom. 9:4–5; Eph. 2:11–13;1Pet. 2:10). They stood under God’s condemnation,especially because they were controlled by their passions and sin,lacking self-mastery and the ability to live rightly (Rom. 1:18–32;Eph. 4:17–19; 1Thess. 4:5; 1Pet. 1:14, 18).
However,various NT authors, such as Paul, contend that Gentiles need not keepthe law, functionally becoming Jews, in order to participate in God’sultimate salvation in Jesus. Christ, the climax of Israel itself, hasreplaced the law’s centrality and ultimacy with himself and hisdeath and resurrection (Rom. 10:4). Through being united to Christ bythe Spirit, Gentiles are, apart from the law, grafted into true,redefined Israel and become Abraham’s descendants, inheritingGod’s promised salvation for Israel (Rom. 3:21–4:25;8:1–17; 9:30–10:17; 11:13–32; Gal. 2:11–4:7;Eph. 2:11–22; 3:4–6). In Christ, by the Spirit, Gentilesattain self-mastery over their passions and sin and thus live rightlybefore God, inheriting the kingdom of God in Christ (Rom. 6:1–8:30;1Cor. 6:9–11; Gal. 5:16–26; 1Thess. 4:3–8).Various NT writings thus reconfigure the situation of Gentiles withrespect to Israel’s God because of what God did in Christ.
Debatesabout Gentiles, the law, salvation, and what Christ means for theseissues persisted after Paul. Early Christians lacked an unequivocalsaying from Jesus on the matter, and not all accepted Paul and someother NT writings.
Patience is a moral attribute that God possesses and thathumans may possess. One who has patience allows time to pass whilemaintaining a positive disposition, often in the face of suffering(Hab. 3:16; 2Tim. 3:10–11; James 5:10), as the KJVtranslation “longsuffering” implies (cf. Prov. 14:29NASB: “slow to anger”). The Scriptures universally speakof patience as an admirable quality and associate patience with othervirtues, such as inner peace (Ps. 37:7), wisdom (Prov. 19:11),persuasiveness (Prov. 25:15), humility (Eccles. 7:8), and kindness(Rom. 2:4; 1Cor. 13:4).
Numerouspassages praise God’s patience. Humans try (Isa. 7:13) and showcontempt for (Rom. 2:4) God’s patience, sometimes by refusingto be patient with others even though they themselves have receivedmercy from God (Matt. 18:23–35). Nonetheless, God displays hispatience by granting them eternal life through faith in Christ(1Tim. 1:16). In fact, God has patiently delayed destroying theworld because he is compassionate and wants all to come to repentance(2Pet. 3:9). God’s patience is evident even toward thosewho are destined for destruction (Rom. 9:22; 1Pet. 3:20).
Justas God is patient, he imparts patience to the Christian through hisHoly Spirit (Gal. 5:22). Like Abraham, the prophets, and any farmer,Christians are to exhibit patience, bearing with people both insideand outside the church (Eph. 4:2; 1Thess. 5:14–15) asthey wait eagerly for Christ’s return (Heb. 6:12–15;James 5:7–10). Those in Christian leadership must modelpatience and encourage others with patience (2Tim. 3:10; 4:2).
Sanctificationand Holiness
Inthe biblical sense, the word “sanctification” relatesdirectly to the Hebrew and Greek words for “holy” (qadoshand hagiosrespectively). One may even argue that “holy-fication”would be preferable to “sanctification” to underscore theintertwined nature of these terms. In Scripture, English terms suchas “holy”/“holiness,”“consecrate”/“consecration,” and“sanctify”/“sanc-ti-fi-cation”/“saints”express cognates of qadosh/hagios.
Despitecontinued emphasis by many writers that “holy” speaks toseparation and that “to be holy” means “to be setapart,” the biblical terms are relational and speak primarilyof belonging. “To be holy” (sanctified) means “tobelong to God”; separation follows only as the exclusivity ofthis relationship demands it.
Qadoshis God’s adjective. God’s character defines the meaningof “holy,” not the other way around. Holy, then, cannotbe reduced to religious notions of purity (and/or exclusivity) butrather must be understood in light of the full expression of God’scharacter and will. While other adjectives such as “great,”“majestic,” and “powerful” can also describehumans, God exclusively determines the meaning of the adjectiveqadosh(hagios).“Holy” has no meaning apart from God. Humans (and things)become holy only as they belong to God. For example, an ordinarytable dedicated to God becomes aholy table. The peoplebelonging to God area holypeople. Different from otherspirits, the Holy Spirit belongs to God and expresses his presenceexclusively (cf. Isa. 6:3; 52:1).
Itfollows that holiness and divine presence are tightly interwoven. Godopens the door into his presence, enabling sanctification (John17:18; 1Cor. 1:2; Heb. 10:10), and he calls for his people notto violate his relational presence (2Cor. 7:1; 2Tim.2:21; Heb. 12:14). Sanctification, then, is not as much an intrinsic“either/or” quality (granted or not granted) as it is arelational “more or less” quality based on God’sdynamic presence. Put differently, the biblical perspective onholiness resists reduction to a mere “holy versus profane”dichotomy and cannot be reduced to a simple declaration (granted!) orto a specific list of godly requirements (dos and don’ts).
OldTestament
Thegradation of the OT priesthood into levels of holiness that enabledentrance and service in weaker or stronger intensities of God’spresence underscores further this dynamic quality of holiness.Although all the people of Israel were holy (belonging to God), thepriests enjoyed a higher degree of holiness than the ordinaryIsraelite. Within the ranks of the priests, the high priest wentthrough stricter rituals of consecration (Exod. 29:1–8, 20–21;Lev. 8:7–24; 21:13–15), since he alone could minister inthe most intensive presence of God (Lev. 16:1–17). Less holywere those of the Aaronic lineage born with physical defects.Although sufficiently holy to eat from the most holy offerings, theycould not serve at the altar (Lev. 21:16–23).
AverageIsraelites possessed a lower level of holiness than Levites andpriests but could, as individuals, acquire greater levels of holinessthrough obedience (Lev. 11:44–45; Num. 15:40–41).Moreover, special vows, like that of the Nazirite, enhanced theaverage Israelite’s quality as holy. The Nazirite vow (Num.6:1–21) did not transfer priestly status to any person, but itdid elevate one’s holiness to a comparable level during theperiod of dedication.
Thisdynamic connection between divine presence and sanctification becomeseven more evident in the prophets. They were “holy men”because they were endowed with the divine spirit, and as the level ofthis endowment varied from prophet to prophet, so did theireffectiveness as God’s messengers. False prophets still carriedthe name, but their lack of devotion to Israel’s God causedinaccuracy in their message (e.g., Jer. 6:13–14).
NewTestament
Thisdynamic relationship between divine presence and holiness translatesdirectly to the NT use of hagiasmos (and cognates). Although theGospels rarely use “sanctification” vocabulary, Jesus’ongoing polemic against the Pharisees, who had turned their piety(holiness) into a question of mere conspicuous behavior, makes thesame point. John’s correlation of Jesus’ sanctificationas God’s Son with the disciples’ experience of theSpirit’s empowerment (John 10:34–38; 17:17–19)indicates the same. Sanctification could not be separated frompurpose and sending (20:21–23) and could not be reduced to aprocess of learning specified “Christian” behaviors.This, again, follows the pattern outlined in Acts; it was theoutpouring of the Spirit that enabled the disciples to live theChristian life, which required the dynamic, creative power of God’spresence (Acts 1:8; 2:1–21).
Paul’sconversion exemplifies this tight connection between divine presenceand sanctification (holiness). Not attaining the experience of Godthat he expected from keeping the law, Paul found the law-promisedaccess to God in Christ. This turned him into a theologian of theSpirit who focused on the relational quality of God’s presence.In Paul’s vernacular “divine presence,” asexpressed through the language of holiness or sanctification, stemsfrom the relational work of the Holy Spirit. Accordingly,sanctification centers on deepening the relationship between God andthe Spirit-filled Christian. Sanctification as a process of“learning” ethics surfaces only as a derivative; ethicsis a by-product of divine presence, not vice versa. The antidote tothe vices of the flesh (Gal. 5:18–21) is not a contrasting listof virtues of the Spirit but rather a fruit, the product or result,of living in God’s presence (Gal. 5:22–23).
ForPaul, Spirit possession was synonymous with being a Christian (Rom.8:9). His concern involved the intensity of the Spirit’spresence. The Spirit could be grieved and his presence quenched—adevastating situation to the Christian’s power and sanctity(Eph. 4:30; 1Thess. 5:19).
Divination and magic were fairly common practices throughoutthe biblical period. Divination was especially prevalent in theancient Near East during the OT era, but many divination andmagic/sorcery practices continued into the NT era throughout theMediterranean region as well. Divination, which encompasses a widerange of magic-related practices, generally refers to varioustechniques used to communicate with supernatural entities such asgods and spirits in order to determine the future, ward off evil, orchange something for the better. Divination emphasizes obtaininginformation that would otherwise be unknown to humans. Magic andsorcery, on the other hand, while overlapping to some degree withdivination, use curses and spells to influence and affect people,often with the intention of harming one’s enemies, but also toenhance the fortunes of those issuing the spells. Thus, magic andsorcery generally emphasize influencing people or events throughsupernatural or occult means. However, often the practices overlapand are frequently carried out by the same person. Likewise,especially in the OT and throughout the ancient Near East during theOT era, the terminology for diviners, magicians, and sorcerers wasquite fluid and not precise or restrictive.
Thenonbiblical literary texts of Israel’s neighbors in the ancientNear East (especially Egypt, Assyria, and Babylonia) contain hundredsof references to various types of divination and magic. The mostcommon divination techniques involved (1)watching birds and thepatterns of their flight; (2)observing drops of oil spreadingacross the surface of water in a bucket; (3)astrology; and(4)removing and observing the entrails of animals, especiallythe liver. From observing these things, the skilled divinersupposedly could interpret the future and advise a king (or otherpatron) about what course to follow. Magic included the casting ofspells as well as the wearing of charms and amulets.
Thebook of Acts clearly indicates that magic and sorcery (and probablydivination) were still quite prevalent in the NT era. Peter confrontsa sorcerer, Simon, in Acts 8:9–24. In numerous earlynonbiblical Christian writings, there are references to this sameSimon as a powerful sorcerer who contended with Peter in variousways. Later in Acts, Paul and Barnabas encountered a Jewish sorcerer,Bar-Jesus, at the very beginning of their first missionary journey(Acts 13:6), perhaps indicating that this type of hostile power wasfairly prevalent in many of the places where the early church wastaking root. Likewise, in Acts 19:19, when the citizens of Ephesusresponded to the gospel in large numbers, “a number who hadpracticed sorcery brought their scrolls together and burned them,”indicating that sorcery was widespread in Ephesus.
Inthe OT, the practice of divination and numerous other kinds of magicand sorcery was strictly prohibited. Deuteronomy 18:9–14presents a list of prohibited practices (although the precisetranslation of the Hebrew terms in this text is difficult). There,divination and all other related pagan methods of seeing ordetermining the future are described as detestable. Likewise, a widerange of practices relating to sorcery, magic, and witchcraft areprohibited (casting spells, consulting with the dead, etc.). Incontrast, this passage is followed by a description of the proper wayto engage with the supernatural: through true biblical prophetschosen by God and speaking in his name (Deut. 18:17–22).
Likewise,in the NT, especially in the book of Acts, those who had the Spiritwere proved repeatedly to be infinitely more powerful than even themost famous of sorcerers and those who practiced witchcraft. Paulincludes “witchcraft” (Gk. pharmakeia, which probablyincludes sorcery and magic) in his list of “acts of the flesh”(Gal. 5:19–20). Finally, the book of Revelation pronouncesjudgment on those who practice magic arts and sorcery (9:21; 18:23;21:8; 22:15).
Divination and magic were fairly common practices throughoutthe biblical period. Divination was especially prevalent in theancient Near East during the OT era, but many divination andmagic/sorcery practices continued into the NT era throughout theMediterranean region as well. Divination, which encompasses a widerange of magic-related practices, generally refers to varioustechniques used to communicate with supernatural entities such asgods and spirits in order to determine the future, ward off evil, orchange something for the better. Divination emphasizes obtaininginformation that would otherwise be unknown to humans. Magic andsorcery, on the other hand, while overlapping to some degree withdivination, use curses and spells to influence and affect people,often with the intention of harming one’s enemies, but also toenhance the fortunes of those issuing the spells. Thus, magic andsorcery generally emphasize influencing people or events throughsupernatural or occult means. However, often the practices overlapand are frequently carried out by the same person. Likewise,especially in the OT and throughout the ancient Near East during theOT era, the terminology for diviners, magicians, and sorcerers wasquite fluid and not precise or restrictive.
Thenonbiblical literary texts of Israel’s neighbors in the ancientNear East (especially Egypt, Assyria, and Babylonia) contain hundredsof references to various types of divination and magic. The mostcommon divination techniques involved (1)watching birds and thepatterns of their flight; (2)observing drops of oil spreadingacross the surface of water in a bucket; (3)astrology; and(4)removing and observing the entrails of animals, especiallythe liver. From observing these things, the skilled divinersupposedly could interpret the future and advise a king (or otherpatron) about what course to follow. Magic included the casting ofspells as well as the wearing of charms and amulets.
Thebook of Acts clearly indicates that magic and sorcery (and probablydivination) were still quite prevalent in the NT era. Peter confrontsa sorcerer, Simon, in Acts 8:9–24. In numerous earlynonbiblical Christian writings, there are references to this sameSimon as a powerful sorcerer who contended with Peter in variousways. Later in Acts, Paul and Barnabas encountered a Jewish sorcerer,Bar-Jesus, at the very beginning of their first missionary journey(Acts 13:6), perhaps indicating that this type of hostile power wasfairly prevalent in many of the places where the early church wastaking root. Likewise, in Acts 19:19, when the citizens of Ephesusresponded to the gospel in large numbers, “a number who hadpracticed sorcery brought their scrolls together and burned them,”indicating that sorcery was widespread in Ephesus.
Inthe OT, the practice of divination and numerous other kinds of magicand sorcery was strictly prohibited. Deuteronomy 18:9–14presents a list of prohibited practices (although the precisetranslation of the Hebrew terms in this text is difficult). There,divination and all other related pagan methods of seeing ordetermining the future are described as detestable. Likewise, a widerange of practices relating to sorcery, magic, and witchcraft areprohibited (casting spells, consulting with the dead, etc.). Incontrast, this passage is followed by a description of the proper wayto engage with the supernatural: through true biblical prophetschosen by God and speaking in his name (Deut. 18:17–22).
Likewise,in the NT, especially in the book of Acts, those who had the Spiritwere proved repeatedly to be infinitely more powerful than even themost famous of sorcerers and those who practiced witchcraft. Paulincludes “witchcraft” (Gk. pharmakeia, which probablyincludes sorcery and magic) in his list of “acts of the flesh”(Gal. 5:19–20). Finally, the book of Revelation pronouncesjudgment on those who practice magic arts and sorcery (9:21; 18:23;21:8; 22:15).
Spousal abuse is most succinctly defined as mistreatment ofone’s marriage partner through physical or emotional means. Thesource of abuse can be traced to the fall, as both partners strugglefor control of the relationship (Gen. 3:16b). As such, abuse is anexpression of a relational problem with God as well as with one’sspouse.
Becauseabuse is rooted in the desire to exploit another, it can never beunderstood as consistent with the biblical understanding of marriage.Marriage is expressed in Scripture as a covenant between twoindividuals who were intended to work together as persons who“correspond” to each other and are “one flesh”(Gen. 2:18 NET; 2:24). The exploitation inherent in abuse is alsocounter to the ideas of mutual submission and of each person in amarriage belonging to the other. Neither person is to be driven byselfish motivations (1Cor. 7:3–5; Eph. 5:21). Ultimately,abuse is counter to the Christian message because it cannot be anexpression of the nature of love (1Cor. 13) or the fruits ofthe Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23). Although abuse can be perpetratedupon either the husband or the wife, Scripture takes special care toinstruct the husband to be gentle in relation to his wife, calling onhim to treat her as Christ does the church and to be mindful of hissignificant role for the wife’s well-being (Eph. 5:28–31;1Pet. 3:7).
The spectrum of meaning of “faith” and “faithfulness” may be applied both to God and to human beings. Cognates of “faith” are used interpersonally in human relationships but are used in the Bible specifically to denote the interaction between God and humanity, and human response to God. A question of theological pertinence is the degree to which one must distinguish between faith as an agent of personal belief and faith as an object of personal belief as pertaining to the relationship between God and human being.
In Hebrew the words most often translated “faith” or “faithful” are ’emunah and ’emet. In Greek the word rendered most frequently “faith” or “faithful” is pistis. In terms of their semantic domains, ’emunah and ’emet connote an objective sense of reliability (of persons) and stability (of inanimate objects); pistis conveys more of a subjective sense of placing confidence in a person, trusting in a person, or believing in a person or set of propositions. This subjective sense of pistis is correlated to considering the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence as reliable—“faithful.” Pistis likewise is used to communicate the quality of this person or belief as “committed” and “trustworthy.”
As noted, to some degree the meanings of the Hebrew and Greek terms overlap. However, certain dissimilarities are apparent as well. These observations play out in OT and NT expressions of faith. Martin Buber (1878–1965), a Jewish philosopher known for his academic work in the area of “faith,” distinguished between two types of faith: OT/Judaic faith, typified as tribal, national, and communal trust and fidelity based on the covenant; and NT/Christian faith, characterized as individual persuasion or belief in something.
Old Testament
Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.
Faithfulness as an attribute of God. Yahweh is presented in the OT as faithful to his promises, as faithfulness is a part of his very being. In the Torah the Israelites are reminded, “The Lord your God is God; he is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love to a thousand generations of those who love him and keep his commandments” (Deut. 7:9). Not only is God presented as keeping his covenant, but also the prophet Hosea calls God “the faithful Holy One” (Hos. 11:12). Isaiah likewise pre-sents faithfulness as an attribute of God (Isa. 49:7). The people can rest assured, for God is unchanging and reliable.
The psalmist speaks of Yahweh as the faithful God: “You have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God” (Ps. 31:5 NRSV); “he remains faithful forever” (Ps. 146:6). The translation “faithful” is warranted in these instances in the psalms. Its connotations are “truth” and “trustworthiness.” Yahweh is ascribed divine honor by his people recognizing and acknowledging his faithfulness and trustworthiness, and by responding to it in obedience as the people of God.
The faith of Abraham. Abraham’s (Abram’s) faith is used in the Bible as an example (Rom. 4:12; Gal. 3:6–9) in the sense that Abraham trusted God’s faithfulness in a way unequaled by other characters in the OT. Abraham lived in Mesopotamia when God spoke to him in a vision and told him that his descendants would be as innumerable as the stars in the sky (Gen. 15:1–5). Abraham trusted that God would be faithful to keep his promise despite insurmountable obstacles. This trust was credited to Abraham as righteousness (15:6). God subsequently initiated a covenant with Abraham (15:7–21).
Abraham’s life was characterized by his obedience to God and by his considering God to be faithful, something well noted by the early church (Heb. 11:8–11, 17–19) and used as an example of faith in the Christian walk (12:1). The three best-known examples of Abraham’s obedience and hence trust in God’s faithfulness are found consecutively in the departure from his homeland, the birth of his son Isaac, and the offering of Isaac as a sacrifice.
When God said to Abraham, “Go from your country, your people and your father’s household to the land I will show you” (Gen. 12:1), Abraham went as commanded (12:4). He obeyed despite his cultural disposition toward staying in the area of his ancestry and kin, and he went without knowledge of an appointed destination. Elderly and childless (12:7, 11–12), Abraham considered offspring to be impossible. However, Abraham trusted that God would be able to raise offspring for him, believing that he would become a great nation (12:2). His offspring Isaac was later reminded of the obedience of Abraham (26:5). Abraham’s greatest challenge of trust in God’s faithful provision came when he was commanded to offer his son Isaac as a burnt offering (22:2). He was commended for fearing God without reservation (22:12).
When the priest and initial leader of the Maccabean revolt, Mattathias, gave his farewell speech to his sons as he faced death in 166 BC, he placed his deeds along the lines of biblical heroes of faith such as Abraham. With likely reference to Abraham offering Isaac, he said, “Was not Abraham found faithful when tested, and it was reckoned to him as righteousness?” (1Macc. 2:52 NRSV). The early church likewise used this test in Abraham’s life as an example of his faithfulness, while at the same time claiming that the source for this faithfulness was found in faith—faith in God’s faithful provision (Heb. 11:17).
Faithfulness to the covenant. Faithfulness embodies the very core of the covenant relationship. God seeks a love relationship with humanity expressed in initiating his covenant. He is described as “abounding in love and faithfulness” (Exod. 34:6). His covenant love (Heb. khesed) is closely correlated to his faithfulness: “He is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love” (Deut. 7:9). Throughout the OT, Yahweh is shown as loyal to his covenant. Yahweh’s righteousness is seen in his faithfulness in keeping the covenant even when his people were disloyal and did not acknowledge his faithfulness. He delivered his people out of Egypt because of his covenant love and righteousness, as the psalmist declared: “But from everlasting to everlasting the Lord’s love is with those who fear him, and his righteousness with their children’s children—with those who keep his covenant and remember to obey his precepts” (Ps. 103:17–18). He delivered them out of their subsequent exile, declaring them righteous because their repentant hearts trusted in his faithfulness and sought to obey his covenant. Yahweh said, “If I have not made my covenant with day and night and established the laws of heaven and earth, then I will reject the descendants of Jacob and David my servant and will not choose one of his sons to rule over the descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. For I will restore their fortunes and have compassion on them” (Jer. 33:25–26).
God’s people, however, were expected to reciprocate and trust his faithfulness (1Chron. 16:15–16). When God met with Moses on Mount Sinai, he instructed Moses to tell the Israelites to obey the commands fully and to keep the covenant. It was only then that they would be a treasured possession, a holy nation (Exod. 19:5–6). The Israelites were expected to follow in obedience and thus reciprocate God’s faithfulness. The people of Israel often failed, but David and other godly people chose to be faithful to God and walk in his truth (Ps. 119:30; Heb. 11:4–38).
Faith counted as righteousness. Whereas faith is used throughout the OT in reference to God’s faithfulness and loyalty, it is used in Hab. 2:4 as pertaining to the faith of the righteous: “But the righteous will live by his faith” (NASB). In Rom. 1:17 Paul specifies, “For in the gospel a righteousness from God is revealed, a righteousness that is by faith from first to last, just as it is written: ‘The righteous will live by faith.’ ” He notes that God’s righteousness, even as revealed within OT promises, is by faith (“faith to faith,” or “faith, through and through”). By the parameters “from faith to faith,” Paul intends to exclude works of righteousness, a theme that he carries consistently in the first four chapters of Romans. Justification, for Habakkuk’s hearers, meant faithfulness, a single-minded focus on Yahweh to meet life’s essential needs. For Paul, salvation by way of justification meant that reliance upon Christ alone was foundational. In Pauline theology, faith is a thread connecting the old covenant with the new covenant.
New Testament
Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.
In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:28–29).
In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).
Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (Eph. 2:8).
In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).
In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1Pet. 1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).
Faith is rarely addressed in the book of Revelation. Rather, faithfulness is the objective. Christ is described as the faithful and true witness (Rev. 1:5; 3:14), the perfect example for believers. One of the believers in Asia Minor, Antipas, is identified as Christ’s witness and faithful one (2:13). Those believers who, like Antipas, are faithful unto death, are called “overcomers” (2:10, 26). The faithless are thrown into the lake of fire, which represents the second death (21:8).
Faith and salvation. The role of faith in salvation is often hotly debated. Views are polarized between Christ as the object of faith and as the subject of faith. These views are designated as an objective genitive (faith in Christ), also known as an anthropological view, and a subjective genitive (the faithfulness of Christ), also known as a christological view. Thus, for example, Rom. 3:22 can be translated as “This righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe” (cf. NRSV) or as “This righteousness from God comes through the faithfulness of Jesus Christ for all who believe” (cf. NET). In the latter translation the faithfulness of Christ is seen as the agent of salvation.
In Eph. 2:8 the phrase “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith,” points to faith as instrumental in salvation. However, the source of that faith is not made clear. Does God provide the faith required to be saved, and thus the event is out of the hands of humanity? Or does salvation require a response from human beings in the form of faith—that is, trust?
In the Letter to the Romans, Paul indicates a correlation between grace and faith (Rom. 4:16; 5:1–2), and he shows that Abraham’s faith, his belief and unwavering hope in God’s faithfulness, was credited to him as righteousness (4:18–22). In the new covenant this righteousness likewise is credited to those who believe in God (4:23–24).
Faith and works. In Eph. 2:8–10 works are described as an outflow of the faith of believers: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God—not by works, so that no one can boast. For we are God’s handiwork, created in Christ Jesus to do good works, which God prepared in advance for us to do.”
Faith and works are also related in the letter of James, where works appear to be a prerequisite of faith, for faith without works is dead (2:26). While at first sight this might appear to contradict a Pauline understanding of faith and works (Rom. 3:19–5:1; Gal. 2:15–3:24), James and Paul use the word “works” differently. Paul uses it in terms of “obedience to the law,” something obsolete as a requirement in the new covenant. James, however, writes with regard to works of charity, not works of obedience to Jewish ritualistic law. Authentic faith, then, shows the evidence of good works—charity, the fruit of the Spirit.
Faith and the Church
Whereas baptism was a public initiation rite into the first-century Christian community, it was faith in Christ Jesus that was understood as establishing one’s membership in the family of God (Gal. 3:26). This membership was available to both Jews and Gentiles. Faith, the shared belief system in and confession of Jesus’ salvific work, became the common denominator in the Christian community. In Ephesians, faith is identified as one of the unifying elements of the church (Eph. 4:5). The prayer of faith heals the sick person in the church, another unifying element of applying faith (James 5:13–15).
Faith as a spiritual gift. According to the apostle Paul, the gift of faith is closely related to the life and functioning of the church (1Cor. 12:9). Mentioned among other gifts, or charismata (12:4), this aspect of faith is that benefit of salvation with which certain members of the church are graced and is used for the common good (12:7). This faith, then, is understood as edifying the Christian community at large rather than just the individual believer.
Faith and the Christian life. Christians are described as living by faith (2Cor. 5:7). Not only does faith lead people to Christ, but also Christ subsequently dwells in believers’ hearts through faith (Eph. 3:17). This Christian faith is subject to testing (James 1:2).
Faith is presented by Paul as present at different levels of growth among believers. Some Christians are weak in faith (Rom. 14:1), whereas others are strong in faith (15:1). Faith can differ in its strength of conviction (4:20–22; 14:5). It is presented as something that can grow (2Cor. 10:15).
Faith is grouped among gifts and virtues. Lifted out together with hope and love, faith is mentioned among gifts that edify believers in the church (1Cor. 13:13). Likewise, faith is mentioned as a Christian virtue among the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23).
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1. Fruit of the Spirit
Illustration
John R. Steward
In the introduction to his book Fruits of the Spirit, Charles Hembree remembers an ancient fable. The fable tells of three merchants who were crossing the Arabian Desert. Because of the heat of the desert they were traveling at night. On that starless night they were crossing over a dry creek bed. As they were crossing a voice in the darkness spoke to them. The voice told them to stop right where they were. Then they were commanded to bend down and pick up the pebbles that were around them in the dry creek bed and put them in their pockets. After they did this they were told to leave and continue on their way and not to camp near the creek bed. The voice from the darkness continued to tell them that in the morning they would be both happy and sad.
Being very frightened by all of this, they traveled through the night and did not stop until they could see the sun. With the arrival of the morning they began to look in their pockets. Instead of finding pebbles in their pockets they found precious jewels. Yes, they were both happy and sad. They were happy that they had listened to the voice of the night but they were also sad that they did not pick up more pebbles.
Charles Hembree goes on to say: "This legend beautifully expresses how many feel about the unsearchable riches of God's Word. We are thrilled we have absorbed as much as we have, but sad because we have not absorbed much more." He goes on to say that this sentiment certainly applies to this verse in Galatians which describes the fruit of the Spirit. Perhaps we should also call these fruits the jewels of the Spirit.
Adapted from Charles Hembree, Fruits of the Spirit (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House), p. 7.
2. Killer Soap
Illustration
Richard L. Dunagin
At their school carnival, our kids won four free goldfish (lucky us!), so out I went Saturday morning to find an aquarium. The first few I priced ranged from $40 to $70. Then I spotted it right in the aisle: a discarded 10-gallon display tank, complete with gravel and filter for a mere five bucks. Sold! Of course, it was nasty dirty, but the savings made the two hours of clean-up a breeze.
Those four new fish looked great in their new home, at least for the first day. But by Sunday one had died. Too bad, but three remained. Monday morning revealed a second casualty, and by Monday night a third goldfish had gone belly up. We called in an expert, a member of our church who has a 30-gallon tank. It didn't take him long to discover the problem: I had washed the tank with soap, an absolute no-no. My uninformed efforts had destroyed the very lives I was trying to protect. Sometimes in our zeal to clean up our own lives or the lives of others, we unfortunately use "killer soaps" - condemnation, criticism, nagging, fits of temper. We think we're doing right, but our harsh, self-righteous treatment is more than they can bear.
Instead use natural ingredients to clean up messes:love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness,gentleness and self-control. I promise you. Your fish will live a long happy life.
3. Faithful Fruit
Illustration
Charles Ryrie
Every Christian will bear spiritual fruit. Somewhere, sometime, somehow. Otherwise that person is not a believer. Every born-again individual will be fruitful. Not to be fruitful is to be faithless, without faith, and therefore without salvation. Having said that, some caveats are in order.
ONE, this does not mean that a believer will always be fruitful. Certainly we can admit that if there can be hours and days when a believer can be unfruitful, then why may there not also be months and even years when he can be in that same condition? Paul exhorted believers to engage in good works so they would not be unfruitful (Titus 3:14). Peter also exhorted believers to add the qualities of Christian character to their faith lest they be unfruitful (2 Peter 1:8). Obviously, both of those passages indicate that a true believer might be unfruitful. And the simple fact that both Paul and Peter exhort believers to be fruitful shows that believers are not always fruitful.
TWO, this does not mean that a certain person's fruit will necessarily be outwardly evident. Even if I know the person and have some regular contact with him, I still may not see his fruit. Indeed, I might even have legitimate grounds for wondering if he is a believer because I have not seen fruit. His fruit may be very private or erratic, but the fact that I do not see it does not mean it is not there.
THREE, my understanding of what fruit is and therefore what I expect others to bear may be faulty and/or incomplete. It is all too easy to have a mental list of spiritual fruits and to conclude if someone does not produce what is on my list that he or she is not a believer. But the reality is that most lists that we humans devise are too short, too selective, too prejudiced, and often extra-biblical. God likely has a much more accurate and longer list than most of us do. Nevertheless, every Christian will bear fruit; otherwise he or she is not a true believer. In speaking about the Judgment Seat of Christ, Paul says unequivocally that every believer will have praise come to him from God (1 Corinthians 4:5).
4. The Holy Spirit Doesn't Have A Copy Machine
Illustration
Richard A. Jensen
The wind of the Spirit blew through St. Mary's Parish but it did not seem to touch the life of Maria Sanchez. Maria had been a faithful member of St. Mary's Parish all of her life. She was baptized there, confirmed there, married there. And yet, when the Spirit blew new life into the lives of so many in the parish, Maria felt excluded.
Some called this blowing of God the "charismatic movement." Whatever it was called it certainly touched the lives of some of the members of St. Mary's in very special ways. Some spoke in tongues for the first time in their lives. Others spoke words of prophecy while others interpreted prophetic words and still others experienced the power of healing.
Maria Sanchez knew these people whose lives had been touched by God in new ways. She was excited for them. She joined them in some of their special prayer meetings. Maria's friends knew of the depth of her faith. This was not in question, at least not in the beginning. Maria was welcomed into their fellowship. She was excited to be there. She experienced the gifts of the Spirit as others exercised them. None of these new gifts were manifested in her life, however. That's where the problem arose.
Maria's newly "spirit-filled" friends wanted to pray for her with the laying on of hands so that she might also be filled with the Spirit and experience the work of God's Spirit in her life in new ways. Maria was more than willing to be prayed for. So the prayer fellowship prayed for Maria.
They prayed -- but nothing happened. No new gifts of the Spirit, that is, became manifest in Maria's life. They prayed for Maria at the next meeting as well. And the next and the next and the next! But -- nothing! It seemed 29to Maria that the matter got focused on the gift of speaking in tongues. "Everyone ought to have this gift," the others told her as they prayed and prayed for her. "Speaking in tongues is a sign of increased holiness," they told Maria.
The prayers did not seem to work, however. Maria Sanchez did not speak in tongues. She did not prophesy nor interpret prophetic utterances nor acquire new and greater faith nor experience new healing power. All the prayers seemed to be in vain. Maria Sanchez experienced all of this as a source of great guilt. What was the matter with her? What was wrong with her faith life? Why couldn't she speak in tongues? In the company of her "spirit-filled" friends she could only see herself as a spiritual failure.
One day Maria's aunt came to visit her. Maria knew her Aunt Carmen to be a woman of great faith. Maria told her aunt of her experiences with her spiritual friends and of her own despair over God's lack of presence in her life. Aunt Carmen heard Maria's story of pain and replied in great wisdom. "The Holy Spirit has been at work in your life ever since you were baptized," Aunt Carmen began. "It is the Spirit that has taught you to have faith in Jesus. It is the Spirit that has given you your many gifts for the common good of God's people. The Holy Spirit doesn't have a copy machine. Only you have been given the gifts that you have. The Spirit doesn't want you to be like anyone else. The Spirit gives each one of us a different assortment of gifts. Our spiritual task is to use the gifts the Spirit gives us for the common good.""
5. The First Fruits of the Spirit
Illustration
Jane Shepherd
Do we have the first fruits of the Spirit? Can someone coming into our door to visit for the first time recognize these traits in us?
Love: do we love each other, and do we love those who are different from us? Do we love and welcome visitors, no matter who they are? Do we try to make their acquaintance, so that we can love them? Do we put their comfort above our own?
Goodness: Peter tells usto support our faith with goodness, and goodness with knowledge. Our salvation is the result of God's goodness. Likewise, other persons should benefit as a result of our goodness. Our mission work should clearly show our faith in God's goodness.
Peace: Is there peace between us, and peace within us? Can someone tell by being with us, that we have a peaceful soul, based upon God as the source of all that we have?
Faithfulness: Is our steadfastness to Christ's church based upon an enduring loyalty that is true to God, no matter how we feel about the pastor, the district, the conference, the women's group, the organist, or any other facet of our organization?
Gentleness: Do we exhibit care and protection for all of God's creation? Are we gentle with the environment, with each other, and with ourselves?
Joy: Do we look joyous to the outsider? Do we feel joy inside? True joy in being a child of God should be able to override all unhappiness and bitterness we feel, and should be reflected in our total involvement in our worship.
Kindness: This action word can be directed outwardly or inwardly. Do we show compassion and generosity to others and ourselves?
Patience: How many of us are willing to let others (and ourselves) come along at each one's own pace? How many of us can forgive seven times seventy?
Self-Control: This is one of the hardest, and may include all of the others. This requires an inner discipline only manageable with the grace of God's Spirit to sustain us in our trials. Do we constantly pray for help in this area, and constantly call on God to help us? If not, we should.
6. Be Careful How You Live - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
Years ago, Harry Emerson Fosdick, then at the height of his influence as minister of the Riverside Church, New York City, was making a tour of Palestine and other countries of the Near and Middle East. He was invited to give an address at the American University of Beirut, Lebanon, where the student body comprised citizens of many countries and representatives from sixteen different religions. What could one say that would be relevant or of interest to so mixed and varied a group? This is how Fosdick began: "I do not ask anyone here to change his religion; but I do ask all of you to face up to this question: What is your religion doing to your character?"
This was a call to consider one of the great issues of human belief: religion and life, Christianity and character, word and spirit. Emerson once said, "What you are speaks so loudly I cannot hear a word you say." Jesus' discourse in this whole sixth chapter of the Gospel of John had two foci - spirit and life. "The words that I have spoken to you are spirit and life." By this he meant that those who appropriated his spirit, i.e., fed upon him as the bread of life, would find, thereby, a fulfillment and satisfaction no other means could give.
The traditions of the world of his time, of course, had a different emphasis. The Greeks were in search of a formula for life, a slogan by which to perform, but such could never claim the commitment of the human will. The Jews had their Law, demanding obedience to every detail as the requisite to the good life, but St. Paul discovered that a set of rules could never provide salvation nor solve the deadly problem of sin and moral failure. Jesus, however, came with a new key to true life: accept his spirit, surrender to the claim of his will, allow him to enter the stream of everyday living; and, in this commitment, all we say and do will reflect the influence of his life within us.
What does this do for and with those who resolve to do it? How has it worked in the Christian story? The world saw this effect in the spirit of the early church, the spirit of human conduct, and in the power to realize what the Christian story promises.
1. The New Spirit's Effecton the Early Church.
2. The New Spirit'sEffectupon Human Conduct.
3. The Power to Realize the Christian Story's Promises.
7. Meet in the Middle
Illustration
Tim Kimmel
Shortly after the turn of the century, Japan invaded, conquered, and occupied Korea. Of all of their oppressors, Japan was the most ruthless. They overwhelmed the Koreans with a brutality that would sicken the strongest of stomachs. Their crimes against women and children were inhuman. Many Koreans live today with the physical and emotional scars from the Japanese occupation.
One group singled out for concentrated oppression was the Christians. When the Japanese army overpowered Korea one of the first things they did was board up the evangelical churches and eject most foreign missionaries. It has always fascinated me how people fail to learn from history. Conquering nations have consistently felt that shutting up churches would shut down Christianity. It didn't work in Rome when the church was established, and it hasn't worked since. Yet somehow the Japanese thought they would have a different success record.
The conquerors started by refusing to allow churches to meet and jailing many of the key Christian spokesmen. The oppression intensified as the Japanese military increased its profile in the South Pacific. The "Land of the Rising Sum" spread its influence through a reign of savage brutality. Anguish filled the hearts of the oppressed and kindled hatred deep in their souls.
One pastor persistently entreated his local Japanese police chief for permission to meet for services. His nagging was finally accommodated, and the police chief offered to unlock his church ... for one meeting. It didn't take long for word to travel. Committed Christians starving for an opportunity for unhindered worship quickly made their plans. Long before dawn on that promised Sunday, Korean families throughout a wide area made their way to the church. They passed the staring eyes of their Japanese captors, but nothing was going to steal their joy. As they closed the doors behind them they shut out the cares of oppression and shut in a burning spirit anxious to glorify their Lord.
The Korean church has always had a reputation as a singing church. Their voices of praise could not be concealed inside the little wooden frame sanctuary. Song after song rang through the open windows into the bright Sunday morning. For a handful of peasants listening nearby, the last two songs this congregation sang seemed suspended in time. It was during a stanza of "Nearer My God to Thee" that the Japanese police chief waiting outside gave the orders. The people toward the back of the church could hear them when they barricaded the doors, but no one realized that they had doused the church with kerosene until they smelled the smoke. The dried wooden skin of the small church quickly ignited. Fumes filled the structure as tongues of flame began to lick the baseboard on the interior walls. There was an immediate rush for the windows. But momentary hope recoiled in horror as the men climbing out the windows came crashing back in their bodies ripped by a hail of bullets.
The good pastor knew it was the end. With a calm that comes from confidence, he led his congregation in a hymn whose words served as a fitting farewell to earth and a loving salutation to heaven. The first few words were all the prompting the terrified worshipers needed. With smoke burning their eyes, they instantly joined as one to sing their hope and leave their legacy. Their song became a serenade to the horrified and helpless witnesses outside. Their words also tugged at the hearts of the cruel men who oversaw this flaming execution of the innocent.
Alas! and did my Savior bleed?
and did my Sovereign die?
Would he devote that sacred head
for such a worm as I?
Just before the roof collapsed they sang the last verse,
their words an eternal testimony to their faith.
But drops of grief can ne'er repay
the debt of love I owe:
Here, Lord, I give myself away
'Tis all that I can do!
At the cross, at the cross
Where I first saw the light,
And the burden of my heart rolled away
It was there by faith I received my sight,
And now I am happy all the day.
The strains of music and wails of children were lost in a roar of flames. The elements that once formed bone and flesh mixed with the smoke and dissipated into the air. The bodies that once housed life fused with the charred rubble of a building that once housed a church. But the souls who left singing finished their chorus in the throne room of God. Clearing the incinerated remains was the easy part. Erasing the hate would take decades. For some of the relatives of the victims, this carnage was too much. Evil had stooped to a new low, and there seemed to be no way to curb their bitter loathing of the Japanese.
In the decades that followed, that bitterness was passed on to a new generation. The Japanese, although conquered, remained a hated enemy. The monument the Koreans built at the location of the fire not only memorialized the people who died, but stood as a mute reminder of their pain.
Inner rest? How could rest coexist with a bitterness deep as marrow in the bones? Suffering, of course, is a part of life. People hurt people. Almost all of us have experienced it at some time. Maybe you felt it when you came home to find that your spouse had abandoned you, or when your integrity was destroyed by a series of well-timed lies, or when your company was bled dry by a partner. It kills you inside. Bitterness clamps down on your soul like iron shackles.
The Korean people who found it too hard to forgive could not enjoy the "peace that passes all understanding." Hatred choked their joy.
It wasn't until 1972 that any hope came. A group of Japanese pastors traveling through Korea came upon the memorial. When they read the details of the tragedy and the names of the spiritual brothers and sisters who had perished, they were overcome with shame. Their country had sinned, and even though none of them were personally involved (some were not even born at the time of the tragedy), they still felt a national guilt that could not be excused. They returned to Japan committed to right a wrong. There was an immediate outpouring of love from their fellow believers. They raised ten million yen ($25,000). The money was transferred through proper channels and a beautiful white church building was erected on the sight of the tragedy. When the dedication service for the new building was held, a delegation from Japan joined the relatives and special guests.
Although their generosity was acknowledged and their attempts at making peace appreciated, the memories were still there. Hatred preserves pain. It keeps the wounds open and the hurts fresh. The Koreans' bitterness had festered for decades. Christian brothers or not, these Japanese were descendants of a ruthless enemy. The speeches were made, the details of the tragedy recalled, and the names of the dead honored. It was time to bring the service to a close. Someone in charge of the agenda thought it would be appropriate to conclude with the same two songs that were sung the day the church was burned. The song leader began the words to "Nearer My God to Thee."
But something remarkable happened as the voices mingled on the familiar melody. As the memories of the past mixed with the truth of the song, resistance started to melt. The inspiration that gave hope to a doomed collection of churchgoers in a past generation gave hope once more. The song leader closed the service with the hymn "At the Cross." The normally stoic Japanese could not contain themselves. The tears that began to fill their eyes during the song suddenly gushed from deep inside. They turned to their Korean spiritual relatives and begged them to forgive. The guarded, calloused hearts of the Koreans were not quick to surrender. But the love of the Japanese believers not intimidated by decades of hatred tore at the Koreans' emotions.
At the cross, at the cross
Where I first saw the light,
And the burden of my heart rolled away ...
One Korean turned toward a Japanese brother. Then another. And then the floodgates holding back a wave of emotion let go. The Koreans met their new Japanese friends in the middle. They clung to each other and wept. Japanese tears of repentance and Korean tears of forgiveness intermingled to bathe the site of an old nightmare. Heaven had sent the gift of reconciliation to a little white church in Korea.
8. What Can You Bear?
Illustration
Charles Ryrie
What is fruit? Actually the question ought to be phrased in the plural: What are fruits which a Christian can bear? The N.T. gives several answers to the question.
ONE, a developing Christian character is fruit. If the goal of the Christian life may be stated as Christlikeness, then surely every trait developed in us that reflects His character must be fruit that is very pleasing to Him. Paul describes the fruit of the Spirit in nine terms in Galatians 5:22-23, and Peter urges the development of seven accompaniments to faith in order that we might be fruitful (2 Peter 1:5-8). Two of these terms are common to both lists: love and self-control. The others are joy, peace, long-suffering, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, meekness, virtue, knowledge, endurance, piety, and brotherly love. To show these character traits is to bear fruit in one's life.
TWO, right character will result in right conduct, and as we live a life of good works we produce fruit (Colossians 1:10). This goes hand in hand with increasing in the knowledge of God, for as we learn what pleases Him, our fruitful works become more and more conformed to that knowledge. When Paul expressed how torn he was between the two possibilities of either dying and being with Christ or living on in this life, he said that living on would mean fruitful labor or work (Philippians 1:22). This phrase could mean that (1) his work itself was fruit, or (2) fruit would result from his work. In either case, his life and work were fruit. So may ours be.
THREE, those who come to Christ through our witness are fruit. Paul longed to go to Rome to have some fruit from his ministry there (Romans 1:13), and he characterized the conversion of the household of Stephanas as the first fruits of Achaia (I Corinthians 16:15).
FOUR, we may also bear fruit with our lips by giving praise to God and thankfully confessing His name (Hebrews 13:15). In other words, our lips bear fruit when we offer thankful acknowledgement to the name of God. And this is something we should do continually.
FIVE, we bear fruit when we give money. Paul designated the collection of money for the poorer saints in Jerusalem as fruit (Romans 15:28). Too, when he thanked the Philippians for their financial support of his ministry, he said that their act of giving brought fruit to their account (Philippians 4:17, KJV).
9. FOLLOW THE LEADER
Illustration
John H. Krahn
A father was filling out the application form for his daughter who was seeking entrance to a very exclusive college. He came to the question on the form asking whether his daughter was a leader. In honesty he wrote, "No, but she’s a good follower." A few weeks later a letter arrived notifying him that his daughter had been accepted. At the bottom of the letter the dean had written, "Since the entering class of 500 has 499 leaders, we thought there ought to be one follower." Unlike the entering class of that college, the church has but one leader and many followers. Jesus Christ leads, we follow.
Remember when we, as children, played the game, "Follow the Leader"? To be a good player we had to keep our eyes on the leader and our mind on the game. As we anticipated the next action, we were able to follow it within a split second. It is difficult to follow our Lord’s lead when our eyes and minds wander away from him by focusing on ourselves or on plastic goals and desires. By plastic, I mean things that lack substance compared to love, joy, peace, patience, and kindness which the Bible describes as the fruits of knowing Christ and following him.
If you haven’t tasted joy for awhile and peace is something you have been longing for, consider getting your eyes back on the Leader. We do that by getting back into the Bible, by talking our life over with him in prayer, and by tasting his forgiveness at the Holy Communion table. Goodness, patience, and kindness can be ours as we follow the Leader.
And the ever popular concept of love ... what about that? The Lord, dwelling in the hearts of his followers, helps them develop a love that is fervent, hardy, and creative. A love that strains like a horse in full gallop. A love that endures like the strength of a long-distance runner. One that helps us create our own personality as we help others create theirs.
10. The Spirit Bird
Illustration
John E. Sumwalt
One summer morning in a mission camp where I was serving as a teacher of Galatians to junior high youth, a bird appeared at morning devotions, and lighted on the head of one of the girls. From there the bird hopped to her arm and then onto the arm of another camper and then another. The bird seemed to be looking for someone. We learned later that it was indeed a tame bird, the pet of a camper in an adjoining camp. We were also told that some boys in our camp had thrown sticks at the bird and frightened it so much that it would not come out of the woods.
The following night, at campfire, one of the counselors got up during our sharing time and told this story. When the bird came among us yesterday morning I was reminded of another camp I attended many summers ago when we were visited by a bird in much the same way. It proved to be a most remarkable bird, and the wonders it worked among us I shall never forget.
It was larger than the bird we saw yesterday, about as big as a pigeon -- black on top with a snowy white breast -- with the most peculiar array of feathers I have ever seen. I have never seen one like it before or since. It came to bring us a blessing at a time when a blessing was very much needed. Our camp was full of dissension. The campers had little respect for the camp, for their fellow campers, or for the counseling staff. They wrote graffiti on the cabin walls and interrupted the counselors with obnoxious noises and giggling during evening devotions. Campers teased one another and called each other hateful names. The counselors had to break up several fights, including a food fight one day in the dining hall during lunch.
There was one boy who was older and bigger than the rest who was the instigator of much of the disharmony and fighting. His name was Johnny. He would start the teasing and then egg others on until a fight had erupted. He got the food fight going simply by daring one of the other boys to throw spaghetti at a group of girls. Conditions in the camp reached a low point when Johnny's cabin raided one of the other cabins. They dumped their luggage on the floor and threw their sleeping bags in the lake. The director tried everything she could think of to restore order, but nothing seemed to work. She was ready to call some of the parents and ask them to come and take their campers home. And then the bird appeared -- suddenly, as if out of nowhere -- on a cold and rainy evening as we were all gathered here around the campfire. It hopped softly and gently among us, flitting from one camper to another, lighting on a head here and an arm there, spreading joy and love as it went. The bird stayed with us for several days. Peace returned to our camp.
One of the counselors, a man in his 70s who had been coming to the camp for many years, told us one night at campfire that it was a spirit bird sent by God to show us how to live peacefully together. Johnny whispered to some of his friends that it wasn't true. He said it was an evil bird, and that if we didn't do something, it would spread disease and sickness throughout the camp. After the campfire Johnny's friends lured the bird into the woods with some bread left from their supper and then pelted it with sticks and stones until it was dead. Johnny watched from behind a tree, and later, when the director asked him what had happened to the bird, he claimed that he had had nothing to do with it.
The next day the old counselor and several of the campers carried the bird's body out to the meadow and laid it gently in a shallow grave beneath the shade of a small pine tree. Then they joined hands and prayed the Lord's Prayer. On the path back to the camp as the little band of faithful mourners sang "We Are One In The Spirit," Johnny and his friends jumped down from a tree from where they had been watching the burial and pelted them with water balloons.
Later that week Johnny plotted with his friends to raid one of the neighboring camps. They planned to soak their sleeping bags with water balloons. When they were about halfway down the path the spirit bird appeared suddenly over their heads, as if out of nowhere. It dove down and landed on Johnny's head with such force that he was knocked to the ground. Then the bird perched on his arm and spoke to him in a human voice. "Johnny, you cannot kill the spirit of God. Whenever I am struck down, I rise up with greater strength and power than before. I want you to go back to the camp and tell everyone that I am alive. Teach them to live by the Spirit."
Johnny went back to the camp and began immediately to tell everyone that the Spirit bird was alive. He became one of the most fervent followers of the Spirit, spreading love, joy and peace wherever he went. I know because I am Johnny. I am the one who caused the other campers to fight with each other and to kill the spirit bird. But since the spirit bird spoke to me, I have been living with the Spirit in my heart. I have not seen the spirit bird since that day on the path, but I see signs of its presence everywhere." Then the old counselor opened a pouch that he carried on his belt and took out a handful of black and white feathers. He walked around the fire circle and gave a feather to each camper and counselor. We closed our campfire that night by joining hands and singing, "We Are One In The Spirit."
Author's Note: This story is dedicated to the campers and counselors of the July 1990 Mission Camp at Lake Lucerne near Neshkoro, Wisconsin -- with special thanks to our director Karen King and my fellow teachers, Isabel Molina Jefferson and Dick and Pat Myer.
11. JOYS OF DISCIPLESHIP
Illustration
John H. Krahn
Coming home late one rainy evening, I was short on patience and a bit uptight. It was the pressures of ministry with too much to do and too little time to do it. That evening, I had planned to write a sermon on the joys of discipleship! As I began, I realized I needed a better frame of mind ... more joy in my own discipleship.
As I reflected on the topic, I was reminded that joy is neither something to be tied into weather, nor tied into a work schedule. There is no such thing as more joy-less work, more work-less joy. Christian joy should not be affected by wages: large raise - great joy, no raise - no joy. Joy in discipleship is something that transcends the ups and downs of living. It must be bigger than the shifting sands of existence.
Turning to the Bible, we see what it has to say about joy and its source. It says that there is fullness of joy in the presence of God. Real joy comes from moving into the presence of God and abiding in the love of Christ. When the spirit of God is alive in us, one of the blessings the spirit brings to us is joy.
A Japanese lady asked the headmistress of a mission school, "Do you take only beautiful girls in your school?"
"Why, no, we welcome all girls," was the reply.
"But I’ve noticed that all your girls are beautiful."
"Well," said the missionary, "we teach them to love our Savior Jesus Christ, and he gives them a look of beauty."
"I am a Buddhist, and I do not desire my daughter to become a Christian, yet I should like her to attend your school to get that look on her face."
Recently a distinguished Britisher said that he visited an American home that seemed to have everything - two cars in the garage, a beautiful living room with expensive furniture, a color TV set, a kitchen filled with the latest gadgets, and a large pool and beautiful patio. However, the lady of the house was reading a book entitled, How to Be Happy.
Happiness is to know the Savior. Joy in discipleship is not attachment to things but is attachment to Jesus. This is why Paul and Silas, after being beaten and thrown into prison, could pray and sing hymns to God and thereby witness to the prisoners who listened to them. Joy is a sign of the presence of God in one’s life. To be a disciple of the Lord Jesus Christ is to experience a deeper level of joy.
Christianity is a religion of joy and excitement. There is nothing unhappy about it. It is for people who want the joy that comes from being involved in something worthwhile. Once you taste the joys of discipleship, you’ll notice that your life will have more meaning. You will even want to return for a second helping.
12. A Church with Nothing to Offer
Illustration
Thomas Long
Check out the church ads on the religion page of the Saturday edition of most big city newspapers and you find some impressive sounding places of worship. There, with sleek graphics and Madison Avenue phrases, a few select churches boast of their assets -- their choirs, their friendliness, their powerful preaching, their singles ministries, their ample parking, their family life centers, their sensitive child care, and their compassionate spirit. Some churches, it seems, have it all.
Other churches, however, appear by contrast to have nothing, absolutely nothing. Take, for example, the church depicted in our text for today. Here, we get our first glimpse of the disciples gathered together after the resurrection, the first glimpse, in other words, of the church in its earliest days, and, all in all, it is not a very pretty picture. Near the end of his life, Jesus had carefully prepared his disciples to be a devoted and confident fellowship of faith. They were to be a community of profound love with the gates wide open and the welcome mat always out, but here we find them barricaded in a house with the doors bolted shut. They were to be the kind of people who stride boldly into the world to bear fruit in Jesus' name, a people full of the Holy Spirit performing even greater works than Jesus himself (John 14:12), but here we find them cowering in fear, hoping nobody will find out where they are before they get their alibis straight. In short, we see here the church at its worst -- scared, disheartened and defensive. If this little sealed-off group of Christians were to place one of those cheery church ads in the Saturday newspaper, what could it possibly say? "The friendly church where all are welcome"? Hardly, unless one counts locked doors as a sign of hospitality. "The church with a warm heart and a bold mission"? Actually more like the church with sweaty palms and a timid spirit.
Indeed, John's gospel gives us a snapshot of a church with nothing – no plan, no promise, no program, no perky youth ministry, no powerful preaching, no parking lot, nothing. In fact, when all is said and done, this terrified little band huddled in the corner of a room with a chair braced against the door has only one thing going for it: the risen Christ. And that seems to be the main point of this story. In the final analysis, this is a story about how the risen Christ pushed open the bolted door of a church with nothing, how the risen Christ enters the fearful chambers of every church and fills the place with his own life.
13. Born of the Spirit
Illustration
Mickey Anders
Windborne! That's a far better moniker for Christians than that mistaken term "born again." That's a phrase we picked up from Nicodemus' misunderstanding of entering a second time into the mother's womb rather than Jesus' terminology "born from above" or "born of the Spirit." "No one can enter the kingdom of God without being born of water and wind - Spirit - pneumatos."
Windborne speaks of being carried along by the wind of the Spirit of God. Here is a lifestyle that is not bogged down with the how questions, but a life that soars among the clouds powered by the mystery of God. "The wind blows where it chooses, and you hear the sound of it, but you do not know where it comes from or where it goes." Ours is a life filled with mystery and the unexplainable.
Science has taught us to ask the how questions. Our contemporary culture seems to be obsessed with the tangible, the explainable, and the measurable. And we are tempted to believe that the only reality is that which we can see and touch. But Jesus calls us to a life of the spirit. It's a life lifted by the invisible power of the wind.
14. Illustrations on the Trinity
Illustration
Brett Blair
The Fathers of the Church used examples to explain the Trinity. They said: Look at a tree if you want to try to understand God. There is the root, the trunk and the fruit. The root is like God the Father, invisible but you know it's there, the trunk is like God the son, sent forth by the Father, visible and tangible, the branches and fruit is like the Holy Spirit. We are connected to Christ through the Spirit dwelling in us and by the power of the Spirit we bear fruit in the world.
Or look at a steam: the water rises from a source, but usually that source is hidden, the source of the stream is like God the Father, the stream which we can see and touch is like God the Son, visible because it flows from the one who sends Him, but the water as it flows into the fields, irrigating the plants and giving them life, allowing them to bring forth a harvest is like the Holy Spirit.
Or look at the light. The light comes from the sun, the source of light, but we see the light most clearly when it pierces through the clouds as a sunbeam. When we are sitting in a room and the light shines in and touches us, we are warmed and can feel the light. So, the sun is like the Father, the beam like the Son and the warmth like the Holy Spirit.
What each of these illustrations has in common is that they are all analogies, God isn't the tree or the stream or the light but like them. All our language about God can only hint at the reality never grasp or contain God in one image.
15. Do You Want To Be More Spiritual?
Illustration
Clement E. Lewis
In his letter to the Philippians, Paul advised, "Let the same mind be in you that was in Christ Jesus." To the Romans he wrote, "To set the mind on the Spirit is life and peace." In order to be more spiritual, the mind needs to be fixed on abiding by the rules of spirituality. Our attitude toward God and Jesus Christ in spiritual matters, and in secular conduct has much to do with how we qualify spiritually. Our devotional, intentionally creative and conscientious participation help to enrich our spiritual manifestations.
The first requirement is to overcome the feelings of distance and strangeness in our relation to God. There are those who feel that God is aloof, or far from them, in spite of our being taught that God is everywhere. Someone asked, "When you feel far from God, who moved?" We need a working and conversational relationship with God, at least daily. Someone also asked, "Do you treat God like your doctor, only consulting with him when you have a problem?"
Learn to use prayer as an instrument of faith, rather than as a salve for conscience, or a plea in emergencies. We should, instead of praying out of duty, talk with God out of love for him and for the life he has given us. Be willing to be yourself with God, facing the truth as it really is, letting him guide you in knowledge and understanding.
Take stock of yourself, your interests and goals in life, and talk them over with God. You may do well to share them also with a good friend who has a deep reverence for life and for God. Ask yourself if what you think and feel would have the endorsem*nt of Jesus. Are you about to do what you sincerely believe is right under the circ*mstance and proper at the time? Are you putting off what you know ought to be considered because it may require more of you than you want to give of yourself, time, or substance? It is hard to feel spiritual comfort, or to be satisfied within yourself if these matters cannot be rightly dealt with.
We need to take our emotions and our reasoning both into account. Sometimes we are torn between the two. While matters of the heart are necessary to enjoy fulfillment, the mind must be in agreement, or an inner argument can ensue, causing regret for a long time. Spiritual joy dies when conflicts are not properly resolved. Remember, life is very personal, and resolution of feelings and problems are essential to spiritual growth.
Most people discover that when they have done the right thing, and have done their best in the interest of spiritual development and religious growth, inner peace comes to their lives. It is then that they come to full appreciation of the words, "To be spiritually minded is life and peace." Total commitment to God through Christ is the best means of finding that life and peace.
When we are truly spiritual persons we often find that we have considerable influence on others. These lines may well serve as our prayer.
May every soul that touches mine,
Be it the slightest contact, get therefrom some good,
Some little grace, one kindly thought,
One aspiration yet unfelt, one bit of courage
For the darkening sky, one gleam of faith
To brave the thickening ills of life;
One glimpse of brighter sky beyond the gathering mist,
to make this life worthwhile
And heaven a surer heritage. Amen.
A Closing Hymn: "Spirit Of The Living God"
16. The Beauty Of Holiness
Illustration
Clement E. Lewis
The 96th Psalm is closely comparable with 1 Chronicles 16:23-26. Psalm 29:2 also contains the words, "Worship the Lord in the beauty of holiness." The New Revised Standard Version translated Psalm 96:9 to read, "Worship the Lord in holy splendor; tremble before him all the earth." Older people have long been accustomed to using the words from the King James Version.
Worship ought to be made beautiful in sight, sound, and thought. The physical settings of worship experiences serve to enhance and reinforce the yearning for understanding and completeness. This may be illustrated by a question: "Would you rather have a picnic on a graveled area in the heat of the sun, or where there is verdure of grass, and the shade of trees?" Worship is best when the scene is not barren, but blessed with good architecture, beauty of color, protection from the elements, and in the presence of an altar, giving it sacred significance.
We need to remember that truth is not only conveyed by words. It is also shared in feelings, situational inclusion, comfortable meditation and contemplation, which nurtures us. But worship can also take place in foxholes of distress, danger, and despair. God's messages and our responses do not always come in pretty packages with liturgical decorations. Sometimes they come in moments of destitution, hunger, inner distress, pain, and loneliness. What we make of what we learn at such times turns the place of discovery into a temple, and we worship in the beauty of holiness because we have found a relationship that truly enriches life.
Worship may take place in prison, a hospital or a nursing home; in a cemetery, a forest, or in a barren desert. It was in a desert setting that Jesus dealt with his temptations and life determinations, as he recalled Deuteronomy 6:13, and declared, "You shall worship the Lord your God, and him only shall you serve." To the woman at the well in Samaria, Jesus said, "Believe me the hour is coming when on this mountain nor in Jerusalem will you worship the Father. ... But the hour is coming, and now is, when the true worshipers will worship the Father in spirit and truth, for such the Father seeks to worship him. God is a spirit, and those who worship him must worship in spirit and in truth." (See John 4:19-24)
All of us yearn for the experience of "worship in the beauty of holiness." The psychiatrist, Von Frankl, held that the urge to worship is instinctive in children in much the same way as the urge to nurse. He suggested that the ages of four and five are the times when children are most desirous and accepting for the experiences of worship. Esthetics and quality appreciation are important to the development and life of the child. The elderly demonstrate much of the same needs in their lives.
"The beauty of holiness" is a most suggestive and satisfying phrase. It conveys the idea of "Holy Presence," and of being involved in spiritual goodness. My how human hearts long for that! In the midst of crassness, competitiveness, controversies, hostility, and uncertainty of conditions, we need that respite desperately.
Symbolism, the historic sign of faith, serves to renew our sense of oneness with what has been generative before us, and proclaims that we too can be involved in the experience of personal inclusion.
The building we refer to as the church or the chapel ought to be as adequate, as comfortable, and as attractive as we want our homes to be. Shouldn't God's house be the most attractive and architecturally satisfying of all? Nostalgia is important to many of us, and plays a tremendous role in our religious and personal life. It is the incentive that leads us to memorialize -- to provide new and beautiful things that relate to worship. Yet, we know that nostalgic sentiment can become a barrier to doing what is most important for the future. We can become so attached to what we have, and give our loyalty to what is familiar, that we may neglect to see what we ought to develop.
"The beauty of holiness" should inspire us for the transformation of life. It should also challenge us to greater things, with God's encouragement and guidance. Contemplating "the beauty of holiness" is not enough! We must also ask, "And what else ought we to do, God?" The answer we receive may not be the one we might prefer, but we had better not pray, "Thy will be done," unless we are willing to be a part of that will. God calls us to the faithful application of our Christian belief and commitment to discipleship, in which is included "the beauty of holiness." Therein lies the great truth of the words with which we began this worship time:
"O worship the Lord in the beauty of holiness;
Serve him with gladness all the earth." Amen.
The Benediction: Send us forth, O God, causing us to remember that the beauty of holiness needs to show in our lives, through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen.
17. Make Me An Instrument
Illustration
Staff
Lord, make me an instrument of Thy peace;
Where there is hatred, let me sow love;
Where there is doubt, faith;
Where there is despair, hope;
Where there is darkness, light; and
Where there is sadness, joy.
O Divine Master, grant that I may not so much
Seek to be consoled, as to console;
To be understood as to understand;
To be loved, as to love;
For it is in giving that we receive;
It is in pardoning that we are pardoned; and
It is in dying that we are born to eternal life.
Note: According to Wikipedia: The anonymous text that is usually called the Prayer of Saint Francis is a widely known Christian prayer for peace. Often associated with the Italian Saint Francis of Assisi, but entirely absent from his writings, the prayer in its present form has not been traced back further than 1912.
18. Sermon Opener - New Wine
Illustration
Barbara Brokhoff
On the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit fell upon the waiting disciples, there were a number of extraordinary events occurring: there was the sound of a rushing wind, cloven tongues of fire appeared, and they all began to speak in other languages and the Holy Spirit gave them ability. The Jews who were visiting Jerusalem, from all nations, hearing them speak in their own tongues, were amazed at this startling phenomenon. They came to the hasty, false conclusion that the disciples must be drunk, and accused them, saying, "They have had too much wine!" "Not so!" said Peter. "It is only nine in the morning -- far too early to be fixed. They are not drunk, but rather filled with the new wine of the Spirit. This is what Joel the prophet foretold many years ago."
In other words, the Holy Spirit is New Wine and it cannot make you drunk. The Spirit will not cloud your mind, it won't cause you to talk stupidly, it won't make you an unsafe driver, and it won't give you a hangover. The disciples were not inebriated, but rather filled with God the Holy Spirit. They had not imbibed on the fruit of the vine, nor had they drunk the nectar of the gods, but they had been filled with the Divine Nectar, the New Wine from heaven. This Spirit will be a wine for all occasions, for all people.
Before his Ascension, Jesus had wanted his followers to know that the same Lord who had called them and ministered to them in his physical presence would now, through the Holy Spirit, always be with them. They must realize that the crucified, resurrected, and now ascended Lord would return. The same Spirit which dwelt in him would now dwell in them.
On this anniversary of the Day of Pentecost, when the Christian Church was born, let us be deeply grateful that the Spirit of Christ, in the power of the Holy Spirit, has come to us. Without the Holy Spirit, Christian discipleship would be impossible. We would have no understanding of spiritual things without the Spirit of Truth. We would never enjoy Christian fellowship with one another without the unity of the Spirit. We could never be effective Christian witnesses without the Spirit's power. In fact, we would have no life without the life-giving Spirit. Just as the body without breath is a corpse, so a church without the Holy Spirit is dead!
The rest of the sermon follows this outline:
1. They Waited And Prayed
2. The Specifics Of The Spirit's Coming
3. This New Wine Makes A Difference
19. Parable of Conversion and Conversation
Illustration
"Mother, what do Christians talk about" asked John.
"Everything! But it is the way they talk that makes them Christians," said his mother.
Conversion implies a change from one condition to another and may hold also the meaning which changes human life to Godly living. Christians are engaged in the business of God which brings about conversion.
Conversation may be of such a light nature and of unimportant speech as to leave no impact. Nevertheless the words are related.
The conversation of a Christian, no matter how light its subject matter, can well reflect the love of God and of fellowman. And that conversation ought also to reveal nothing which is detrimental to man's faith. Thus, the hearer of Christian conversation may be impressed with the joy of living under God, whether deeply engaged in matters of conviction or lightly engaged in the pleasantries of daily experience.
We live by the Word, the Word of God. Our communications to one another are by our own words. Our words have power to cleanse, to love, to heal, to direct, to correct and to bless. Therefore, let us so choose our words that we may be God's children. Let the spirit of His Word be in our words bringing joy and understanding and fellowship with one another and with God.
Thus, conversion and conversation may fill the needs and the moods of life in harmony with God.
20. What Things Are Perfect Joy
Illustration
St. Francis of Assisi
How St. Francis, Walking One Day with Brother Leo, Explained to Him What Things Are Perfect Joy.
One day in winter, as St. Francis was going with Brother Leo from Perugia to St. Mary of the Angels, and was suffering greatly from the cold, he called to Brother Leo, who was walking on before him, and said to him: "Brother Leo, if it were to please God that the Friars Minor should give, in all lands, a great example of holiness and edification, write down, and note carefully, that this would not be perfect joy."
A little further on, St. Francis called to him a second time: "O Brother Leo, if the Friars Minor were to make the lame to walk, if they should make straight the crooked, chase away demons, give sight to the blind, hearing to the deaf, speech to the dumb, and, what is even a far greater work, if they should raise the dead after four days, write that this would not be perfect joy." Shortly after, he cried out again: "O Brother Leo, if the Friars Minor knew all languages; if they were versed in all science; if they could explain all Scripture; if they had the gift of prophecy, and could reveal, not only all future things, but likewise the secrets of all consciences and all souls, write that this would not be perfect joy."
After proceeding a few steps farther, he cried out again with a loud voice: "O Brother Leo, thou little lamb of God! if the Friars Minor could speak with the tongues of angels; if they could explain the course of the stars; if they knew the virtues of all plants; if all the treasures of the earth were revealed to them; if they were acquainted with the various qualities of all birds, of all fish, of all animals, of men, of trees, of stones, of roots, and of waters - write that this would not be perfect joy."
Shortly after, he cried out again: "O Brother Leo, if the Friars Minor had the gift of preaching so as to convert all infidels to the faith of Christ, write that this would not be perfect joy." Now when this manner of discourse had lasted for the space of two miles, Brother Leo wondered much within himself; and, questioning the saint, he said: "Father, I pray thee teach me wherein is perfect joy." St. Francis answered: "If, when we shall arrive at St. Mary of the Angels, all drenched with rain and trembling with cold, all covered with mud and exhausted from hunger; if, when we knock at the convent-gate, the porter should come angrily and ask us who we are; if, after we have told him, ‘We are two of the brethren', he should answer angrily, ‘What ye say is not the truth; ye are but two impostors going about to deceive the world, and take away the alms of the poor; begone I say'; if then he refuse to open to us, and leave us outside, exposed to the snow and rain, suffering from cold and hunger till nightfall - then, if we accept such injustice, such cruelty and such contempt with patience, without being ruffled and without murmuring, believing with humility and charity that the porter really knows us, and that it is God who maketh him to speak thus against us, write down, O Brother Leo, that this is perfect joy. And if we knock again, and the porter come out in anger to drive us away with oaths and blows, as if we were vile impostors, saying, ‘Begone, miserable robbers! to the hospital, for here you shall neither eat nor sleep!' - and if we accept all this with patience, with joy, and with charity, O Brother Leo, write that this indeed is perfect joy.
And if, urged by cold and hunger, we knock again, calling to the porter and entreating him with many tears to open to us and give us shelter, for the love of God, and if he come out more angry than before, exclaiming, ‘These are but importunate rascals, I will deal with them as they deserve'; and taking a knotted stick, he seize us by the hood, throwing us on the ground, rolling us in the snow, and shall beat and wound us with the knots in the stick - if we bear all these injuries with patience and joy, thinking of the sufferings of our Blessed Lord, which we would share out of love for him, write, O Brother Leo, that here, finally, is perfect joy. And now, brother, listen to the conclusion. Above all the graces and all the gifts of the Holy Spirit which Christ grants to his friends, is the grace of overcoming oneself, and accepting willingly, out of love for Christ, all suffering, injury, discomfort and contempt; for in all other gifts of God we cannot glory, seeing they proceed not from ourselves but from God, according to the words of the Apostle, ‘What hast thou that thou hast not received from God? and if thou hast received it, why dost thou glory as if thou hadst not received it?' But in the cross of tribulation and affliction we may glory, because, as the Apostle says again, ‘I will not glory save in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ.' Amen."
21. Joy Unbounded, Glory Fulfilled
Illustration
Leonard Sweet
Pastor/Bishop Kenneth Ulmer (Inglewood, California) envisions the animating, life-fulfilling power of the Holy Spirit as like the transformation that comes over the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade balloon figures as they're inflated. Without any air these huge balloons lay flat on the floor, limp, and featureless figures. But when the wind starts whipping up inside those balloons, they begin to rise, stand up, and stand tall. They become individuals, people and creatures that we recognize and love. Once on the parade route, these balloons take on even more life, for they're animated not just by the air within them, but by the winds that buffet and bolster them down the street.
In today's gospel text, Jesus doesn't appear before Martha and Mary – who are in agony over the death of their brother Lazarus – just to bring them a casserole. Jesus doesn't cluck his tongue and concede that Lazarus' death is a tragedy.
Jesus goes to his best friend's tomb and calls out, "Lazarus, come forth!" As experienced by Ezekiel and the psalmist, once again the animating spirit of God moves with power and precision, and brings a dead man walking right out of his tomb! This is what God settles for. Miracle, rebirth, deliverance from the pit, and eternal redemption. God doesn't define winning as not losing. God doesn't settle for anything less than joy unbounded, and glory filled dreams fulfilled.
22. WIZARD
Illustration
Stephen Stewart
Deuteronomy 18:11 - "nor a charmer, or a medium, or a wizard, or a necromancer."
The word "wizard" may be translated as the "knowing or wise one," and, whereas the title witch was the name given to a woman who practiced witchcraft, the name wizard was given to a man who did the same thing. However, there was somewhat more involved here than simple witchcraft - it also involved necromancy, or the calling up of the dead, to foretell future events, to cure diseases, to drive out evil spirits, and such.
The whole idea of the communication with the dead was a familiar one to the ancient world. For example, in the Gilgamesh Epic, Gilgamesh conjures up the spirit of Enkidu to inquire about the state of the dead in the lower world. Because of this sort of communication, it is obvious that sharp denunciations were pronounced against the practice. Since God is the Lord of both worlds, it is not right that man should enquire too closely into the mysteries of life beyond, and so any type of witchcraft, and necromancy in particular, are strongly denounced.
We have, of course, the very obvious example of Saul, who sought the aid of the witch of Endor in calling up the spirit of Samuel from the dead, and the results of that encounter. We have also the fear of the witch herself, who admitted that she was in danger of her life because she granted Saul’s request. Leviticus as well as Deuteronomy specifically stated that the practitioners of the art of necromancy, as well as their clients, were subject to the death penalty.
There is, to most of us, something inherently distasteful and frightening in the thought of trying to establish communication with the dead, and yet spiritualism and the spiritualist cult leaders are very popular. Perhaps you know of someone who has gone to a seance, or you have consulted an ouija board (just for fun, of course), or you have at least read up on what is involved in necromancy.
It’s scary, and most us don’t take the idea of communication with our dead loved ones too much to heart, but it’s big business, just the same.
23. Fruit of the Spirit
Illustration
Donald Grey Barnhouse
Love is the key.
Joy is love singing.
Peace is love resting.
Long-suffering is love enduring.
Kindness is love's touch.
Goodness is love's character.
Faithfulness is love's habit.
Gentleness is love's self-forgetfulness.
Self-control is love holding the reins.
24. Two Wolves
Illustration
Brett Blair
One of my favorite theologians, Mr. Rogers, used to say: "Have you noticed that the very same people who are bad sometimes are the very same people who are good sometimes?" It reminds me of a story called, "Two Wolves." It goes like this:
An old Cherokee chief was teaching his grandson about life..."A fight is going on inside me," he said to the boy. 'It is a terrible fight and it is between two wolves. One is evil - he is anger, envy, sorrow, regret, greed, arrogance, self-pity, guilt, resentment, inferiority, lies, false pride, superiority, self-doubt, and ego.
The other is good - he is joy, peace, love, hope, serenity, humility, kindness, benevolence, empathy, generosity, truth, compassion, and faith. This same fight is going on inside you - and inside every other person, too."
The grandson thought about it for a minute and then asked his grandfather, "Which wolf will win?"
The old chief simply replied, "The one you feed."
25. THE ONLY WAY OUT
Illustration
John H. Krahn
You are because I am. I was there from the beginning. My Father, God, and I fashioned the world that you enjoy. We hung the stars in the sky, scooped out the lakes, formed the mountains. But our genius was no more evident than when we made you. You are so magnificent. Consider yourself - your ability to think and reason. Do you realize how special you are? We had such a great thing going in the garden.
Unfortunately, the devil talked your forebears into trying to be like God, and they both fell for it. My Father and I had no choice but to show them the exit from Eden. Because of their sin, we had to face the decision whether or not to save what we created or to destroy it all. Save it, we decided. Later, in response to a promise made to your father Abraham, I, the son of God, was implanted by the Holy Spirit in a young virgin’s womb. They called me Jesus, for I had come to save you and all humankind from the consequences of your sins.
The plan of salvation was not complicated, although it was generous perhaps to a fault. You had sinned and continue to sin. It is your nature from the time of the Fall. Therefore, you cannot save yourself. Although some of you sin less than others, none of you is perfect. My Father demands perfection - he will not stand for any imperfection in eternity. Fortunately for you, my Father is also compassionate, and his love goes beyond human love. He wanted to reclaim you as his own, therefore, he decided to be inflicted with suffering and death. To accomplish this, he sent me - part of himself - to become a person like you and to receive punishment and death in your place.
Some of you only see me as an Alka Seltzer for an occasional headache, rather than a Savior for a whole new life. You call upon me and my Father for help only when all else seems to fail. Voices we haven’t heard in years make their way heavenward in dying breaths. Others make a puzzle out of our plan for your salvation. You continue to believe that you must add some of your goodness and righteousness (which is really in short supply by heaven’s standards) to my sacrificial death on the cross. Friends, I paid the price - one hundred percent at Calvary.
Can you imagine how I feel as your God, having humbled myself by becoming a human being, giving up heaven for a stinking stable, being misunderstood, mocked, tortured, spit upon, and hung, all because of you and your wretched sinfulness ... and then to have you believe that this was not enough. To have you, in your pride, believe that some goodness of yours would need to be added in order for the Father to receive you into heaven angers and disappoints me. You can do nothing to save yourself; I did it all because I love you. Please get it into your head, once and for all, I am your only way out of the pits of hell. As I said while I was with you on earth, "I am the way, and the truth, and the life; no one comes to the Father, but by me!" May the Holy Spirit convince your hearts of my love, and may you understand that believing in me is the only way to be saved; sufficient in itself, needing absolutely no human works, no false pride, no human righteousness, nothing ... nothing ... nothing at all to be added to it. I died to purchase a place for you in heaven which I offer to you as a gift which you must receive totally and exclusively by faith.
26. Just Getting Started
Illustration
Staff
Old age is dreaded by almost everyone because it usually means loneliness, physical decline, and a retreat to inactivity. Some people tend to lose their enthusiasm for life and spend too much time in fruitless reminiscing and self-pity. They feel like "Old Jimmy", an elderly gentleman George Mueller often told about. When this man was asked what he did all day since he had retired, he replied, "I just sit and think, and sit and think,...and sometimes I just sit!" That's getting old in the worst way ceasing to live before we die.
History records that many people made some of their greatest contributions to society after the age of 65. The Earl of Halsburg, for example, was 90 when he began preparing a 20- volume revision of English law. Goethe wrote Faust at 82. Galileo made his greatest discovery when he was 73. At 69, Hudson Taylor was still vigorously working on the mission field, opening up new territories in Indochina. And when Caleb was 85, he took the stronghold of the giants (Josh. 14:10-15).
God never intends for us to retire from spiritual activity. The Bible says we can "still bring forth fruit in old age." Even as Jesus kept the "best wine" for the last at the wedding in Cana (John 2:10), so He seeks to gather the most luscious clusters of the fruit of the Spirit from the fully ripened harvest of our lives. You may be sure God wouldn't keep you on this earth if He didn't have a worthwhile ministry for you to accomplish. So keep on serving the Lord!
27. Captured by the Spirit of Christ
Illustration
King Duncan
Two months before his assassination, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., spoke to his congregation at Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta about his death in what would oddly enough become his eulogy.
"Every now and then I think about my own death, and I think about my own funeral," Dr. King told his congregation. "If any of you are around when I have to meet my day, I don't want a long funeral. And if you get somebody to deliver the eulogy, tell them not to talk too long. Every now and then I wonder what I want them to say. Tell them not to mention that I have a Nobel Peace Prize, that isn't important. Tell them not to mention that I have three or four hundred other awards, that's not important. I'd like someone to mention that day that Martin Luther King, Jr., tried to give his life serving others. I'd like someone to say that day that Martin Luther King, Jr., tried to love somebody. I want you to be able to say that day that I did try to feed the hungry. I want you to be able to say that day that I did try, in my life, to clothe those who were naked. I want you to be able to say that I did try to visit those in prison. I want you to say that I tried to love and serve humanity." Dr. King concluded with these words: "I won't have any money left behind. I won't have the fine and luxurious things of life to leave behind. But I just want to leave a committed life behind."
Did Martin King have that level of commitment when he first began his ministry? It's doubtful. He had youthful enthusiasm to be sure. He had strong convictions. He was well brought up, with an outstanding Baptist preacher as a father. But people who are truly captured by the spirit of Christ do so generally after years of walking in Christ's footsteps. Our faith is validated and grows as we "come and see."
28. WHAT HAS EVER HAPPENED TO HONOR?
Illustration
John H. Krahn
"Wilt thou have this woman to be thy wedded wife ... wilt thou love her, comfort her, honor and keep her in sickness and in health, and, forsaking all others, keep thee only unto her, so long as ye both shall live?" And all of us who are married said, "I will." Tucked away inside this vow is a promise to honor our spouses, to respect them, stand up for them, and hold them in high esteem. High esteem does not permit fooling around. Because of the high divorce rate and other statistics we read on marital fidelity, we are moved to ask, "What has ever happened to honor?"
Where is honor in the relationships of young people dating today? God has declared that our bodies are the temples of the Holy Spirit. We are told that by the age of twenty-three, the majority of unmarried young adults have violated each other’s virginity and thereby dishonored the dwelling place of God’s Spirit. What has ever happened to honor?
In much of the business world today, doing the smart thing has replaced doing the right, honorable thing. Morality seems to be becoming a thing of the past like bobbysocks and bloomers. Foolish is the person who does the honorable thing and winds up with less profit because of it. Practical considerations have replaced principle-decisions. What has ever happened to honor?
When we love and honor the Lord completely without reservation, we are also motivated by the Spirit to live lives that outdo one another in showing honor. The Christian should be an outstanding citizen. Today, God is saying to us, love and honor me. Be honorable in all that you do. Remember your marriage vows. Honor your spouses by caring for them. Don’t attack them by your words or your actions, but build them up. Do you love them? Tell them. Better, show them. Children, your parents are a gift from God to you. They make many mistakes, but they love you and want the best for you. Honor them, tell them you love them. Better yet, show them. The person with whom you work, those people you’ll meet later today, tomorrow’s companions through life, all need to be touched by your love and esteem, for through your love God wants to add wholeness to their lives. By your actions, your way of doing business, the way you move through life, may "honorable" become a description of your personality.
We can never overdo honor. Excessive honor is not possible. We can never show God superfluous respect and esteem. Once I asked a young child how much ice cream she wanted. Her answer was, "Give me too much." She obviously wanted a lot. How much honor are we to show the Lord and each other? A lot, or to put it in the child’s words, "Too much."
29. Wounded Trees
Illustration
Maxie Dunnam
Harry Emerson Fosdick told of a curious practice of apple growers in the state of Maine. A friend of his, visiting an orchard one day, saw the trees laden with apples to the point that the branches had to be propped up to keep them from the ground. When he exclaimed about it, the owner said, “Go look at that tree’s trunk near the bottom.” He saw that the tree had been badly wounded with a deep gash. “That is something we’ve learned about apple trees,” said the owner. “When the tree tends to run to wood and leaves and not to fruit, we wound it, gash it, and almost always, no one knows why, this is the result. It turns its energies into fruit.”
A close observation will show that we know many wounded trees in the human orchard of whom this is a parable. There are those who experience intense suffering, but in their suffering discover the great realities of life and begin to produce the fruit of the Spirit. The trouble with most of us is that we “want to get to the promised land without going through the wilderness.”
30. After the Mountaintop
Illustration
Don M. Ayco*ck
Have you ever noticed that almost every mountaintop experience in life is followed by a valley experience? You graduate from school with the great expectation of making your mark in the world, but you find out that the world doesn't exactly welcome you with open arms. You get married with the full expectation that your new spouse will relieve your loneliness and solve your problems, but you find out you are still you. Life's high moments are often followed by low times depression and bewilderment.
If we knew our Bible a little better, these experiences would not surprise us because this happened to Jesus, too. He had gone to John the Baptist who immersed him in the Jordan River and baptized him into away of life which was to change the world. The heavens opened and Jesus saw the form of a dove descend upon him and heard the voice of God say, You are my son; I am well pleased in you. What a grand and high moment! But looked what happened next: Jesus, full of the Holy Spirit, returned from the Jordan and was led by the Spirit in the desert where for 40 days he was tempted by the devil.
31. The Harvest of Love
Illustration
Helen Keller
That blessed saint, Helen Keller once wrote: "Christmas is the harvest time of love. Souls are drawn to other souls. All that we have read and thought and hoped comes to fruition at this happy time. Our spirits are astir. We feel within us a strong desire to serve. A strange, subtle force, a new kindness animates man and child. A new spirit is growing in us. No longer are we content to relieve pain, to sweeten sorrow, to give the crust of charity. We dare to give friendship, service, the equal loaf of bread and love."
Peace, power and purpose. "The light shines in the darkness…" In these very busy days of preparation, may His peace, His power and His purpose dwell in our hearts.
32. Letting God Bless You
Illustration
Joel D. Kline
In his book Letting God Bless You John Killinger concludes with the challenge:
Permit God to bless you. Don't look around you and think how hard life is. Look around and see how filled with mystery and goodness it is. See how wonderful the world looks when you know God is at work redeeming it and setting up the anti-structures, so that humility and purity and compassion and longing for justice and peace will all be fulfilled and rewarded in the eternal scheme of things.
Give thanks to God for the richness of existence.
Then look around to see who you can share it with.
That will make you even richer.
If you will learn to live this way every day, you will always have a song in your heart and the path before you will be lined with flowers. Joy will spring up inside you like a fountain, and you will lie down to sleep at night with peace in your soul. And you will say, "Blessed be the name of our God forever and ever, who calls us to a new rule where righteousness will be the order of the day forever!"
This Advent season, my friends, let us make the critical choice of permitting God to bless us and to fill us with a new sense of hope and purposeful living. Let us live in the assurance that the present darkness is not our final destination, that there is indeed much more yet to come. Along the way we will begin to experience joy springing up within us like a fountain. Thanks be to God, who blesses us with love and grace beyond measure.
33. The Key to the Beatitudes
Illustration
Owen Stepp
The idea of being poor in spirit is the key to all that is to follow in the Beatitudes.I like the note in the Life Application Bible:
- You cannot mourn without appreciating how insufficient you are to handle life in your own strength.
- You cannot be meek unless you know you have needed gentleness yourself.
- You cannot hunger and thirst for righteousness if you proudly think of yourself as already righteous.
- You cannot be merciful without recognizing your own need for mercy.
- You cannot be pure in heart if your heart is full of pride.
- You cannot be a peacemaker if you believe that you are always right.
- You cannot identify with Christ in the face of negative reactions from others without dying to yourself and renouncing your own rights."
All of these beatitudes are rooted in humility, being poor in spirit.
34. A Weapon of Love
Illustration
Joel D. Kline
Martin Luther King, Jr., whose birthday we celebrate this week, spoke with some frequency during his years of ministry of putting on the "weapon of love." Responding to those who resisted the emerging civil rights movement, King asserted, "We will counter your force with soul force, we will match your ability to hate with our ability to love." And King reminded us that at the heart of Jesus' life and message is the call to be peacemakers and reconcilers. Violence, said King again and again, "never brings permanent peace. It solves no social problems; it merely creates new and more complicated ones."
We live in a world thirsty for this gospel of peace. With Martin Luther King, and with Jesus before him, we need to announce with integrity, "The old law of an eye for an eye leaves everyone blind. It is immoral because it thrives on hatred rather than on love. It destroys community…Violence ends by defeating itself. It creates bitterness in the survivors and brutality in the destroyers."
35. Listen for the Questions
Illustration
Joel D. Kline
The Scriptures include a significant number of life-and-death questions about meaning, purpose and value in life. Consider some of the questions posed by Scripture:
- What will it profit us if we gain the whole world but forfeit our life? (Matthew 16:26)
- Who do you say that I am? (Matthew 16:15)
- What are you looking for? (John 1:38)
- Who is my neighbor? (Like 10:29)
- What must I do to inherit eternal life? (Mark 10:17)
- Who can separate us from the love of Christ? (Romans 8:35)
- Are you able to drink the cup that I drink, or be baptized with the baptism that I am baptized with? (Mark 10:38)
- Which commandment is the first of all? (Mark 12:28)
- Where can I go from your Spirit? (Psalm 139:7).
- What is this new teaching, with authority? (Mark 1:27)
- Who is this about whom I hear such things? (Luke 9:9)
- What is truth? (John 18:38)
And this morning's Gospel lesson ends with the question, "Who then is this, that even the wind and the sea obey him?" Who is this Jesus, the one who speaks with a new level of authority, the one who is able to bring calm into the storms of life, the one who comes among us as prince of peace, suffering servant, fount of compassion and grace?
36. Other Voices
Illustration
John M. Braaten
The call of our Lord is "hidden" in a whole chorus of worldly voices which beckon us. Other would-be shepherds seek to tempt us away from the Good Shepherd, the joy of his forgiveness and the security of his love. And when we are weak and confused we may fall victim to the enticements of other gods.
An American tourist traveling in the Mid East came upon several shepherds whose flocks had intermingled while drinking water from a brook. After an exchange of greetings, one of the shepherds turned toward the sheep and called out, "Manah. Manah. Manah." (Manah means "follow me" in Arabic.) Immediately his sheep separated themselves from the rest and followed him.
Then one of the two remaining shepherds called out, "Manah. Manah." and his sheep left the common flock to follow him. The traveler then said to the third shepherd, "I would like to try that. Let me put on your cloak and turban and see if I can get the rest of the sheep to follow me."
The shepherd smiled knowingly as the traveler wrapped himself in the cloak, put the turban on his head and called out, "Manah. Manah." The sheep did not respond to the stranger's voice. Not one of them moved toward him. "Will the sheep ever follow someone other than you?" The traveler asked.
"Oh yes," the shepherd replied, "sometimes a sheep gets sick, and then it will follow anyone."
We have seen it, haven't we? People, young and old, who are "sick." Battered by the storms of life and distracted by voices urging them to go this way and that, they have lost their bearings and they don't know where they are or where they are going. That can be more than a little frightening; it leads to despair, to hopelessness. And when someone is "sick" they will follow anyone who will promise a moment of happiness, a brief feeling of peace or forgetfulness, a sense that they are someone.
But the call of Jesus the Good Shepherd is, "I am the Way, the Truth, and the Life." There is no better way, no greater truth, no happier life. Our Lord reaches out to us in love that we might follow him.
37. Spiritual vs Material Thinking
Illustration
Maxie Dunnam
Archbishop William Temple once noted that spiritually minded people differ from materially minded people not in that they think about different things but in that they think about the same things differently.
Now that’s a profound observation. I wonder how many persons these days are even thinking in those terms. All of us should be.
The human being is spiritual. The philosopher was right. There is a God-shaped void within us all. But it’s not just a question about God. How do we love? What gives us meaning? What sort of experience provides joy? To what do we open our eyes widely and exclaim, “Ah-ha!”? These are spiritual questions. To be spiritually minded rather than materially minded is to think about things in the light of a year rather than an hour, to test value, to seek to fill that God-shaped void within us in a way that won’t allow you to wake up tomorrow empty again.
38. TOO MUCH RELIGION?
Illustration
John H. Krahn
Once when talking about God with a banker, he told me that he had enough religion. More would be too much. I asked him whether he could foresee a time when his bank might make too much money. He could not imagine such a circ*mstance. Likewise, I said, I do not see how one could have too much of God and his love.
Happiness is everyone’s goal. It is also God’s wish for our lives. The closer we are to him, the happier we are. The Bible says that joy and peace and happiness come from being very close to God and trusting in him.
Suppose my young daughter came to me and said, "Daddy, I love you and will do anything you want me to." To which I reply, "Lisa, get rid of all your toys, no more friends, stay in your room, and very soon you will be the unhappiest child on Long Island." How ridiculous! If she came trusting me with her life, I would try even harder to give enhancing direction to it. God is no different. When we give ourselves completely to him, we come away the better for it.
So tomorrow when we rise from the horizontal to the vertical, let’s begin the day talking it over with the Lord. As we meet family and associates, we would do well to try to capture God’s vision of them: precious people, worthy of a Son’s death. And when the problems come, may we realize we can bear great and heavy burdens if we do not try to carry them alone. Then retiring at night, we talk the day over with the Lord and fall asleep realizing that each dawn brings a new beginning.
Too much religion? Not possible!
39. Hymns at Midnight
Illustration
Larry Powell
Paul and Silashad been thrown into prison at Philippi because Paul had cast a demon from a slave girl. However, there were extenuating circ*mstances. It seems the slave girl allegedly had powers of divination which enabled her to engage in "fortune telling." Her owners had managed to turn her condition into a rather lucrative business. And, of course, when Paul removed the demon, he also eliminated the owner’s profit. Let’s think about that for a moment. Isn’t it fortunate that some people cannot receive the joy of a blessing because of a bitter spirit? A young girl, who is described by commentators as being mentally deranged, is healed! And yet all her owners could think about was the money her healing was going to cost them. I am reminded of the woman who went into the hospital for a physical examination without the knowledge of the minister or anyone else in the church. When her tests confirmed that she was in excellent health, she was dismissed to go home. A few days later, when the minister learned she had been in the hospital, he stopped by to see her. She proceeded to scold him because neither he nor anyone at the church had been to see her in the hospital (one and one-half days). She was sadly unable to enjoy the good news about her health because she had a bitterness in her spirit. It was the same kind of attitude that put Paul and Silas in prison.
Paul and Silas were singing hymns in the cell and, about midnight, there was a great earthquake. The foundations of the jail quivered and shook. The doors were flung open and the fetters of all the prisoners were unfastened. When the jailer saw that the doors were opened he supposed the prisoners had escaped. Knowing that he would be held accountable, he drew his sword and was about to take his own life when Paul said, "Do not harm yourself, for we are all here" (v. 28). The jailer immediately fell to his knees before Paul and said, "What must I do to be saved?" Paul answered, "Believe in the Lord Jesus Christ, and you will be saved." The jailer and his entire family were baptized and received into the fellowship of Christ. His life had been saved twice; once during the earthquake, and once from his own hand. Now he was saved for all eternity.
In all probability, the hymns which Paul and Silas were singing at midnight had little if anything to do with the Philippian jailer’s conversion. I would suspect that the eartquake stood him mentally erect, causing him to get in touch with the condition of his spirit. An earthquake can do that. So can foxholes, tornadoes, or a doctor saying to us, "I’m afraid I have some bad news." These and similar situations which you could name confront us with reality in a hurry. The earthquake made its impact on the jailer.
However, the fact that Paul and Silas did not attempt to escape from their cell also impacted the jailer. The coincidences were too numerous to ignore; the hymn singing, the earthquake, the cell being opened, the fetters on all the prisoners unfastened, and ... not the slightest attempt to escape. Something was going on here! The accumulation of events brought the jailer to his moment of conversion.
Let the record show that conversion may occur suddenly, in the twinkling of an eye, or it may come upon us slowly, cumulatively, as the result of assorted experiences and reflections. And in the simple story of the Philippian jailer, we find the format for conversion in its simplest form (16:29-31), regardless of time, place, or manner.
40. The End of the Gladiator Games
Illustration
Robert Salzgeber
Telemachus was a monk who lived in Asia Minor about the year AD 400. During his life the gladiatorial games were very popular. The gladiators were usually slaves or political prisoners who were condemned to fight each other unto death for the amusem*nt of the crowd. People were fascinated by the sight of spurting blood.
Telemachus was very much disturbed that the Christian Emperor Honorius sponsored these games and that so many people who called themselves Christians went to see them. What could be further from the Spirit of Christ than the horrible cruelty of the gladiatorial games? The church was opposed to the games and spoke out against them, but most people would not listen because they were deaf to God's unbounded message of love.
Telemachus realized that talking about this evil was not enough. It was time to do something. But what could he accomplish - one lone monk against the whole Roman Empire? He was unknown. He had no power. And the games had been entrenched in Roman life for centuries. Nothing that he could possibly do would ever make a difference.
For a long time Telemachus agonized about the problem. Finally he could not live with himself any longer. For the integrity of his own soul he decided to obey Christ's Spirit within him, regardless of the consequences. He set out for Rome.
When Telemachus entered the city, the people he met had gone mad with excitement. "To the Coliseum! The games are about to begin!"
Telemachus followed the crowd. Soon he was seated among all the other people. Far away in a special place he saw the emperor.
The gladiators came out into the center of the arena. Everybody was tense. Everybody was quiet. Now the two strong young men drew their swords. The fight was on! One of them would probably die in a few minutes. Who would it be?
But just at that moment, Telemachus rose from his seat and ran into the arena. He held high the cross of Christ and threw himself between the two combatants.
"In the name of our Master," he cried, "Stop fighting!" The two men hesitated. Nothing like this had ever happened before. They did not quite know what to do.
But the spectators were furious. Telemachus had robbed them of their anticipated entertainment! They yelled wildly and stampeded toward the center of the arena. They became a mob. With sticks and stones they beat Telemachus to death.
Far down there in the arena lay the little battered body of the monk. Suddenly the mob grew quiet. A feeling of revulsion at what they had done swept over them. Their once deaf ears sensed a stirring. Emperor Honorius rose and left the coliseum. The people followed him. Abruptly the games were over.
Honorius sensed the mood of the crowd. His ears too were opened. He issued an edict forbidding all future gladiatorial games. Honorius' ears had been opened to the violence and dehumanization of the games. As a result he was able to speak.
So it was that in about the year A.D. 404, because one individual, filled with the love of Christ, dared to say no, all gladiatorial games ceased.
41. Invitations from the Christ Child
Illustration
King Duncan
A woman visited a tourist town and stopped to see a cathedral. As she stared at the beautiful stained-glass windows, a feeling of peace washed over her. She hadn't felt that way since childhood, and she had a deep yearning to attend church again. Kneeling before the Christmas scene, she studied the figure of the Christ child whose arms were outstretched. She wished with all her heart that those arms were reaching out to her. She remembered Christmases of long ago when her family attended church together. The Nativity scene then was lit with colored lights and pine boughs scented the church. Afterward friends invited her family to breakfast. They would return home from sharing fun and laughter, and then exchange gifts. They sipped hot chocolate and listened to bells toll Christmas joy throughout the town. The peace, love and warmth now seemed far away. Christmas was lonely and cold. She hadn't gone to church in many years because of rebellion as a young woman. The pain and the bitterness of remembering seared her heart. As tears fell, she felt a gentle hand on her shoulder. A kindly priest looked down at her. "Father, I'm so miserable," she blurted. She told him the story of her rebellion and bitterness, her loneliness, and her fear of going back to church.
He replied, "The church is for people still suffering. Jesus has already forgiven you."
Those words rang in her head long after the priest had left her. She felt the bitterness slipping away. She knew that the Christ child was with her.
42. Truly Thankful
Illustration
John Wesley was about 21 years of age when he went to Oxford University. He came from a Christian home, and he was gifted with a keen mind and good looks. Yet in those days he was a bit snobbish and sarcastic. One night, however, something happened that set in motion a change in Wesley's heart. While speaking with a porter, he discovered that the poor fellow had only one coat and lived in such impoverished conditions that he didn't even have a bed. Yet he was an unusually happy person, filled with gratitude to God. Wesley, being immature, thoughtlessly joked about the man's misfortunes. "And what else do you thank God for?" he said with a touch of sarcasm.
The porter smiled, and in the spirit of meekness replied with joy, "I thank Him that He has given me my life and being, a heart to love Him, and above all a constant desire to serve Him!" Deeply moved, Wesley recognized that this man knew the meaning of true thankfulness.
Many years later, in 1791, John Wesley lay on his deathbed at the age of 88. Those who gathered around him realized how well he had learned the lesson of praising God in every circ*mstance. Despite Wesley's extreme weakness, he began singing the hymn, "I'll Praise My Maker While I've Breath."
43. Taste and See
Illustration
Brett Blair
An elderly woman made her living selling artificial fruit. One day a customer complained the fruit she sold was not realistic enough. She pointed to an apple, saying it was too red, too round and too big to be a real apple. At that point the artificial fruit lady picked up the apple and proceeded to eat it.
The resurrection of Jesus, throughout the years has been critically examined, judged by authorities, and editorialized by writers, and the conclusion of most is that it is simply an event which can not be proven and probably too good to be true. It may look like an apple but in actuality it is artificial fruit, they conclude. But if you will pick it up and take a bite you come to know that he really did rise from the grave. He is alive. He is listening to our prayers. He is ready to serve when that service deals with the human heart in need of a shepherd's guidance and love.
George Bernard Shaw, the famous playwright, was handed a newly written play by a fledgling playwright. Shaw was asked to give the young man a criticism of the work a few days later. "How did you like it?" asked the author. "I fell asleep reading it," said Shaw. "Sleep is my comment on your work."
My friend there is nothing boring about the resurrection. Easter dawns upon a world hidden in darkness. Easter awakens every sleeper with the news that preacher of peace, the Prince of Power and the Lord of Love has appeared. Christianity is real. Christianity is alive. Christianity is anything but boring. Let us all wake up and smell the roses. Let us resolve to live our lives as if Jesus were a guest in our homes, workplaces and businesses. The truth is that the Lord is here, there and everywhere. He is alive. He is our Risen Lord to whom we offer our discipleship with love.
The song goes, "They'll know we are Christians by our love." Let us be about our Father's business as we serve him with joy. Let us show and tell others the good news of the gospel.
44. In Christ We Have…
Illustration
Staff
In Christ We Have:
- A love that can never be fathomed
- A life that can never die
- A righteousness that can never be tarnished
- A peace that can never be understood
- A rest that can never be disturbed
- A joy that can never be diminished
- A hope that can never be disappointed
- A glory that can never be clouded
- A light that can never be darkened
- A purity that can never be defiled
- A beauty that can never be marred
- A wisdom that can never be baffled
- Resources that can never be exhausted.
45. The Perspective of Longevity
Illustration
George Bass
Ide Ward was going on 120 years of age when he died early in 1982; a doctor said he died "just of old age," but George Will of the Washington Post called his long life a "triumph of the spirit." Will says, "Aging, like a lot of other common things (life, love, memory, the existence of the universe, the infield fly rule), remains a mystery. But many gerontologists believe that, absent disease or imprudent living, an individual ages according to his or her genetically controlled ‘clock.' A scientist says that, ideally, we should live fairly healthily and then go ‘poof' rather than go into slow decline or a nursing home." Will says that "longevity is a triumph of the spirit" and not just of physiology; Ward "was picking up steam - and stumps and things - when he was past 70, heading for two score and nine more." And writes Will, "Such longevity can be, in a way, terrible, because it almost invariably involves the burial of many friends, relatives, children (Ward lost three sons during the First World War) and grandchildren. But such longevity can offer perspective on those who experience it, and those who think about it."
There is no way of knowing how long the young man lived after Jesus raised him from the dead, but he must have looked at life and death from a different point of view than before. Perhaps he lived long enough to bury his mother, but both of them would have faced her death differently than before Christ came along. And God has placed us alongside them through the resurrection of Jesus Christ, "the first-fruits of those who have died." We say, "God has visited his people" in Jesus; he has "raised a saviour" among us - and through him death has been defeated forever. God is still in heaven and all really is well in the world.
46. The Object of Envy Is Trapped
Illustration
Scott Hoezee
In his story "Abel Sanchez," writer Miguel de Unamuno nicely highlights the nature of envy and why it is that the envied person is often trapped by his envy. In his writinghe retells the story of the Cain and Abel, and he modernizes it. The Cain character is played by a skilled surgeon who has for years secretly envied his friend, Abel Sanchez, a skilled artist. At one point in the story, the doctor is scrutinizing one of Abel's paintings. This particular painting is a depiction of the Cain and Abel story itself from the Bible. At first, the doctor is convinced that the face of Cain in the painting is modeled on his own face. And he becomes furious! How dare Abel Sanchez use HIM as a model for envy? The gall! The nerve! The implied accusation! But then, upon closer inspection, the doctor decides it's not his face after all. Does this defuse his anger? By no means! Instead the surgeon becomes irate that Abel Sanchez did NOT deign to use him in one of his famous paintings! How dare Abel NOT use his face!
De Unamuno's point is clear: when you are the object of envy, you cannot do a blessed thing to make the situation any better. Try to be extra kind to the one who envies you, and this kindness will get written off as condescension and charity. Try to rise above things by ignoring the one torn up with envy and you will be written off as arrogant and rude, thereby merely confirming the envier's low opinion of you. Neither approach nor avoidance can help the envied one.
It's difficult to know how much of a role envy plays in Mark 6 but surely the sneering attitude of Jesus' fellow townsfolk revealed at least a smidgen of envy-driven sentiments. Maybe this had something to do with his inability/unwillingness to do miracles there. He was doomed no matter what he did. Do more miracles, and the people write him off as a showboat (and/or as someone drawing off power from dubious sources). If he refused to do miracles, maybe a few would say, "What now?! We're not good enough for you, not WORTHY of your wonder-working power!?"
Perhaps the only thing left to do was leave town and go to other villages, from which Jesus sent forth his disciplesto do wonderful work in places where it could beappreciated.
47. YOU’VE GOT WHAT IT TAKES
Illustration
John H. Krahn
Lewis Carroll, author of Alice in Wonderland, wrote children’s stories which not only captured the imagination of the children but also bore a message. In one of his fantasies he tells of a lock that runs around continually searching for something. Finally a curious bystander asks, "What is the matter?" "I am seeking," says the lock, "for something to unlock me."
How many of us are faced with the same dilemma as that of Lewis Carroll’s lock? Many times we go through life locked up in ourselves and in our anxieties. We want someone to unlock us - to release the latent powers within us - someone to set us free from our fears and to show us and help us develop solutions.
The cross of Christ is God’s statement that you and I have worth in his eyes. Whenever we see or wear a cross, it proclaims, "God believes I’m worthwhile, and he wants me to start appreciating my value." Often though, we see ourselves as weak and ineffective and not very competent. That simply is not true. We are children of God, created in his image. Therefore we have potential power. We have what it takes.
The New Testament says it this way, "Surely you know that you are God’s temple, and that God’s spirit lives in you!" Just think of it - we are the temple of Almighty God and his spirit is in us. How can we then say, "I haven’t got what it takes to meet a problem that is facing me?" We must never give up, never. If we believe the truth that God’s spirit is in us, we will never give up. For with God’s help we are equal to anything the Devil or life throws our way. God in Christ was able to overcome death itself, and he can certainly help us overcome our problems however big they might be.
Today God wants to provide a breath of fresh air for the smoke-filled rooms of our lives. Some lives are cluttered with fears and problems. We need only be willing to open the window of our hearts and let him in. We breathe in God’s spirit through reading and studying his Holy Word. With the Lord’s help we refurbish our body, his temple, and meet our problems head on.
48. FROM SOAP TO CERTAINTY
Illustration
John H. Krahn
Silhouetted figures made their way to the tomb as the first sliver of light graced the darkened earth. Jesus was dead. They still couldn’t believe it. It was like a bad dream of grand proportions. The ring of hammer upon nail still echoed in their ears; the horrendous sight of crucified bodies was burned indelibly into their brains. With him had died the hopes of eleven broken men. The sun had set on their lives, plunging them into forever darkness. Men and women who loved him, who believed in him, had their hopes raised to heaven only to then have them dashed to the depths.
A day of surprises was now dawning; the day of all days was commencing; a spirit of caring propelled the three women forward, not knowing how they would even be able to enter the grave. But God had opened the tomb. A rock, however big, would not block the Christ who spoke of faith great enough to move mountains. Entering the tomb, black Friday becomes Good Friday, hope returns to the hopeless, death is replaced by life.
Each of us has had our bad Fridays when someone has crucified our hopes, when someone close to us has scorned our love, when our hearts have worn the black band of betrayal, when we have sold our integrity for thirty pieces of silver, when the shadows of life outdistance the rays of sunlight. There is not one person who does not need healing in some aspect of his or her life. No one can stand before the cross and say, "Jesus, like you, I have no sin."
All of us know the Easter story, but what God really desires is that we all encounter the living Christ. I have seen the living Christ. I have been an eyewitness who has seen purpose enter into aimless lives. I have seen calmness overcome chaos. I have seen him strengthen the weak, bring healing to the sick, and comfort to the bereaved. I have seen him bestow joy and confidence to lives shattered by an angry and cruel world. I have experienced his presence in my life and in the lives of others.
I know that my Redeemer lives. I even know your Redeemer lives. If you know it too, praise God with your lives. Without the resurrection, death and taxes are the sum of life’s certainties. With Jesus Christ, our lives cease being daily soap operas and become divine certainties to be lived to the fullest with the final chapter to be played before the throne of Almighty God.
49. Christians under Construction
Illustration
James L. Killen
People print all sorts of things on T-shirts, from advertisem*nts to obscenities to affirmations of faith. One fellow was seen wearing a T-shirt with the words, "Christian Under Construction," printed on it. We can all appreciate what he meant by that. We can talk about the difference faith in Christ is supposed to make in our lives and about how it is supposed to work and even about the samples of the new life in Christ that we have already experienced. But, most of us know that we are not yet what God wants us to be. At our best, we are Christians under construction. And, that is all right. That is a good way to be. The changes that God will make in our lives don't happen all at once. It is a good thing to know that we are in the process of becoming what God wants to make us and to participate in that process very intentionally and joyfully.
In our scripture lesson for today, Paul reckons with the fact that the Christians at Corinth, to whom he is writing, are still Christians under construction. He has been talking about new life in the Spirit and about the Spirit interpreting spiritual things to those who are spiritual. Then he comes down to earth and says, "But, you folks obviously aren't there yet. If you were, you wouldn't be arguing about petty little things like which pastor you like best." He says, "I could not talk to you as spiritual people. I must speak to you as people who are still in the flesh, as infants in Christ." Paul seems impatient at this and disappointed in the Corinthians. But eventually Paul came to understand that this is just part of the process, something that has to be worked with.
50. Getting Rid of the Bah Humbugs
Illustration
Brett Blair
Many years ago the Puritans thought that they were ruining Christmas with all their pagan rituals. They especially objected to the fact that the holiday usually came on a week day, therefore distracting people, they thought, from the Lord's Day of Sunday. But they did more than annually complain about it as we do. They took action and got rid of Christmas altogether. In Puritan settlements across 17th century America a law was passed outlawing the celebration of Christmas. The market place was ordered to stay open for business as though it was no special occasion and all violators were prosecuted. It was against the law to make plum pudding on December 25th. The celebration was not referred to as Yuletide but as fooltide.
So we want to reform Christmas and clean it up do we? Well, is this how far we want to go? Do we really want to be rid of it altogether? Then will Christmas, as the Puritans thought, be saved from us and our sinful ways. So what if we spend $40 billion annually on presents. Can you think of a better way of spending all that money than on gifts of love? And most of them are just that. And so what is all the lights and tinsel does create a fairy tale setting that soon disappears as does the so called Christmas spirit. At least it lets us know, if only for a brief time, what life can be like if we only try.
So let the message ring out this day, not that we are destroying this holy day, but rather, that we can never destroy this day. Behold, I bring you good tidings of great joy which shall be for all generations. For unto you is born this day, in the city of David, a savior who is Christ the Lord.
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